English in the Book of Mormon

On Saturday, March 14, 2015 I attended the conference "Exploring the Complexities in the English Language of the Book of Mormon" at BYU. Co-sponsored by Interpreter Foundation and BYU Studies, the presenters were Stanford Carmack, Jan J. Martin, Nick Frederick and Royal Skousen. Daniel C. Peterson introduced the conference and John W. Welch concluded it. Following are my notes.

Stanford Carmack is an independent scholar who lives on Cape Cod. He holds degrees in Linguistics and Law from Stanford and a PhD in Hispanic languages and literature from UC Riverside. He has written three very important articles published in 2014 and 2015 in Interpreter: A Journal of Mormon Scripture:

• A Look at Some "Nonstandard" Book of Mormon Grammar
• What Command Syntax Tells Us About Book of Mormon Authorship
• The Implications of Past-Tense Syntax in the Book of Mormon

His presentation was entitled "Exploding the  Myth of Unruly Book of Mormon Grammar: A Look at the Excellent Match with Early Modern English."

Robert F. Smith published the first Book of Mormon critical text with FARMS in the 1980's. Since 1988 Royal Skousen has been working on his critical text which reached a milestone in 2009 with the Yale University Press publication of The Book of Mormon: The Earliest Text. A Kindle edition appeared in 2013. Carmack is a contributor to Volume 3 of Skousen's critical text (in preparation).

Carmack makes extensive use of the 54,000 and counting volumes in Early English Books Online EEBO. Literature Online (LION) is another of his fundamental resources, as is the OED. He not only finds examples of Book of Mormon words and phrases, but also plots their usage frequencies by time period. He has demonstrated, conclusively in my opinion, that the original English text of the Book of Mormon revealed to Joseph Smith has strong affinities with Early Modern English (EModE 1470 - 1700). This era in the evolution of the English language includes Shakespeare (1564 - 1616) and the King James Bible ( KJV 1611). See the blog article "Early Modern English."

Carmack pointed out many examples of Book of Mormon vocabulary and syntax that are not in the KJV but are attested in EModE, thus dispelling the myth that Joseph simply plagiarized the Bible.

Some of the interesting language constructs Carmack discussed:

• "mights" KJV always uses the singular "might"
• "nor no manner of"
• "if it so be that"
• "it supposeth me"
• "him supposeth"
• "did" as an affirmative past-tense marker. The Book of Mormon uses did + a verb to express past-tense 27% of the time - over 1,800 instances. The Bible uses this syntax less than 2% of the time. This usage was common in EModE, peaking about 1560 and then tapering off sharply. The Book of Mormon is a good 16th century match at a deep syntactic level.
• "didst" & "did" in the same sentence
• command syntax using "that" or "to" with an embedded verb
• causative syntax "cause us that we should"
• "adieu" which was very common in EModE
• "wearied him with their teasings"
• "have went," "have became"
• "had ought," "had came," "had gave" 
• "people which was"
• "hath" & "hath" or even "hath," "hast," & "hath" in the same sentence
• "have" & "hath" in the same sentence
• "engraven" & "molten" as verb stems
• "even to that" meaning until
• "th" versus "est" word endings
• "ye" versus "thou"
• "done" as a simple past-tense of "do."
• "much provisions"
• "should not do none" double negation

The question on everyone's' lips after Carmack's rapid-fire delivery was why? Why would the Lord have revealed a text in 1829 in a language that had not been spoken anywhere on earth for several generations? Carmack gave four cogent answers:

1. KJV affinity. This language has an old-fashioned biblical feel.
2. Witness of the gift and power of God. This makes the Book of Mormon miracle even that much more astonishing. No other 19th century work uses EModE syntax, not even pseudo biblical texts that are consciously mimicking KJV style. This is simply beyond human capability.
3. Translation facility. The Book of Mormon is translation literature. The Lord knew this text would be widely translated (113 languages currently). Shakespeare and the Bible are the most translated bodies of literature in history, so EModE provides a good base text to support translations.
4. Plainness. Even though EModE syntax sounds odd, even erroneous to modern ears, the meaning is seldom in doubt. Some of modern English's ambiguities were not yet in the language in the EModE era.

--

April 10, 2020 Note.

I just read Stan Carmack's "Bad Grammar in the Book of Mormon Found in Early English Bibles" in Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship 36 (2020), pp. 1-28. It occurred to me there is a fifth possible reason why the text of the Book of Mormon was originally dictated in Early Modern English. This may have been a divine nineteenth century gift to honor the sixteenth century martyr, William Tyndale (1494-1536). Carmack quotes David Daniell saying that Tyndale's influence on the English language is so profound it cannot be measured. "Without Tyndale, no Shakespeare." Many words in the earliest text of the Book of Mormon are literally William Tyndale's words.

Page (Romans 4) from Geneva Bible, 1589 Edition
One of the Early English Bibles Following Tyndale

--

Jan J. Martin, whose advanced degree is from University of York, is delightful to listen to. I found myself wondering if she was a Brit who has spent a lot of time in the States, or a Yank who has spent a lot of time in the UK. She is an American who has spent enough time in the UK that her speech is peppered with charming British English. She is a specialist in biblical translations, currently an Assistant Visiting Professor of Ancient Scripture at BYU. Her presentation was entitled "Charity, Priest, and Church versus Love, Elder, and Congregation: The Book of Mormon's Connection to the Debate between William Tyndale and Thomas More."

More (1478 - 1535) was high church, clerical, Catholic. Tyndale (ca. 1494 - 1536) was low church, lay, Protestant. Theology is dependent on language. "God is but his word" was the way Tyndale phrased it. Alexander Campbell, one of Joseph Smith's most virulent critics, characterized the Book of Mormon as a crude compilation of the theological debates swirling on the American frontier in the 1820's. Martin showed the Nephite text is much more subtle, nuanced and sophisticated. It deftly navigates the waters between More and Tyndale just like every 16th century English Bible translation was forced to do. Major English Bible translations from Tyndale to the KJV:

• Tyndale 1526
• Coverdale 1535
• Matthew's 1537
• Great 1539
• Geneva 1557
• Bishops' 1568
• Douay-Rheims 1582 (Catholic)
• King James 1611

More argued Greek New Testament agape should be translated "charity," presbuteros "priest," and ekklesia "church." Tyndale passionately advocated for "love," "elder," and "congregation." Both men were executed in their prime and their debate was never resolved.

All 8 of the Bible translations shown above favor "love" over "charity." The KJV uses "charity" 29 of 252 times which is 11.5%, a higher usage rate than in any of the other versions. The Book of Mormon uses "charity" 27 times and "love" 66 times, for a usage rate of 29%. The Book of Mormon also uses several qualifying adjectives with the word "love" such as "pure," "everlasting," and "perfect" which bring it close to the caritas of the Vulgate: love imbued with god-like qualities. 4 Nephi 1:15 is one example of the high standard to which "love" is usually held in the Book of Mormon. The Book of Mormon is a wonderful blend of charity, high order love such as the love of God, and carnal or materialistic love.

All 8 of the Bible translations shown above favor "elder" over "priest" and the two terms are roughly synonymous with "high priest" being a separate office. Note that the 2013 LDS edition of the KJV does not follow the original 1611 text in many instances. The Book of Mormon, on the other hand, uses the word "priest" 105 times and the word "elder" in an ecclesiastical sense only 9 times. In this case, the Book of Mormon contradicts the KJV. In the Book of Mormon, "elder" and "priest" are separate offices with an elder superior to a priest. Elders ordain priests Moroni 3:1.

The Bible translations up to 1540 use "congregation" 100% of the time. Beginning with the Geneva Bible, the word "church" predominates. The Book of Mormon has 235 instances of "church" and only 2 of "congregation." Tyndale thought the word "church" should be reserved for the "elect." The Book of Mormon church is thoroughly egalitarian.

Far from being a clumsy parody of Jacksonian American theological polemics, the Book of Mormon beautifully synchronizes More's Catholicism with Tyndale's Protestantism. The Book of Mormon contribution to the More/Tyndale debate ends in a draw. Its refined treatment of theological and religious issues go much beyond Joseph Smith's innate capabilities. It should come as no surprise, then, that the Book of Mormon also deftly handles many other contentious issues that have riven Christianity for centuries such as favor earned versus grace freely given, authority through lineal descent versus the priesthood of all believers, culpability for original sin versus newborn innocence, essential sacraments versus confession of faith, etc.
--
Nick Frederick holds a PhD in the History of Christianity from Claremont. He is an Assistant Professor of Ancient Scripture at BYU where his research interests focus on intertextuality between the Bible, particularly the New Testament NT, and LDS scripture. His presentation was entitled "'Full of Grace, Mercy, and Truth': Exploring the Complexities of the Presence of the New Testament within the Book of Mormon."

This was the presentation that caused me to re-examine my preconceptions. The Brass Plates of Laban are a plausible explanation for the presence of so much of Isaiah (about 1/3) in the Nephite text. I can easily understand why our risen Lord chose to quote Malachi 3 & 4 to the Nephites at the Temple in land Bountiful as recorded in 3 Nephi 24 & 25. The Savior's masterful recasting of Matthew 5-7 as the Sermon at the Temple in 3 Nephi 12-14 I find moving and persuasive. But Nephi₁ quoting from the Acts of the Apostles ostensibly written by Luke ca. AD 70? That caused me to think more deeply than I ever have before about intertextual dependencies in the Book of Mormon.

Biblicists classify instances of intertextuality as quotations, allusions and echos. Frederick has identified about 1,800 potential shared phrases between the New Testament and the Book of Mormon. Not counting 3 Nephi 12-14 reduces that number to 778. 333 are precise and therefore highly likely dependencies (quotations). 338 are very likely (allusions) and 107 are likely (echoes). New Testament phrases are quite evenly distributed throughout the entire Book of Mormon. The books of Matthew, John, Revelation, 1 Corinthians, Acts and Hebrews are the most referenced. Frederick wrote his dissertation on the many tight relationships between 3 Nephi 9 and John's prologue to his gospel.

After showing dozens of instances of New Testament intertextuality with the Book of Mormon, Frederick began to explore patterns in the data.

• Grand visions have similarities. 1 Nephi 11-14 corresponds in many ways with the Revelation of John.
• The Book of Mormon weaves NT phraseology into complex literary tapestries that go far beyond mere cut and paste plagiarism.
• We tend to focus on the similarities between the Sermon at the Temple and Matthew 5-7, but 3 Nephi, including chapters 12-14, have remarkable affinities with the writings of John.
• The life experiences of Alma₂ and the sons of Mosiah₂ closely mirror those of the Apostle Paul. We should not be surprised to find intertextuality between them and we do.
• The correlation between Mormon 9 and Mark 16 is lengthy and precise. Both Mark and Moroni₂ summarize the life and ministry of the Savior with its implications for believers.
• The resurrected Savior explicitly says he shared the same words in the Old World and the New 3 Nephi 15:1. Jesus' logia are a necessary and sufficient urtext behind many dependencies such as Moroni 7:45 and 1 Corinthians13:4-7.
• In the spirit of Nephi's "plainness in the which I know that no man can err" 2 Nephi 25:7, the Book of Mormon often makes things explicit so as to be crystal clear. Deuteronomy 18:15, 19 is the source for both 1 Nephi 22:20 and Acts 3:22-23. The Lord Himself quoted Nephi in personally announcing the fulfillment of Moses' prophecy 3 Nephi 20:23.
• The Book of Mormon is closer to the New Testament than it is to the Old Testament OT.
• The Yale 2009 text is closer to the NT than is the LDS 1980-2013 text.
• Context is often determinative. Passages about faith or priesthood have strong similarities.

So why do we find Luke showing up in First and Second Nephi? In the time of Joseph Smith, the KJV was considered the voice and language of God. Steven C. Harper's aritcle "Infallible Proofs, Both Human and Divine: The Persuasiveness of Mormonism for Early Converts" Religion and American Culture 10 (1) 99-118 (Winter, 2000) shows that the reciprocity of the Book of Mormon and Bible mutually corroborating each other powerfully influenced the saints in Joseph Smith's day. Mormon 7:9 prophesied this intertextual validation.

Lucy Mack Smith said Joseph Smith at age 18 had never read the entire Bible and was more inclined to meditation than to study. The fact that at age 24, from April 7 to July 1, 1829, he dictated almost the entire Book of Mormon in a revelatory marathon is nothing short of amazing. The Book of Mormon is precisely a "marvelous work and a wonder" as Nephi₁ prophesied 2 Nephi 25:17 quoting Isaiah 2 Nephi 27:26, Isaiah 29:14 who alluded to King David Psalms 105:5 who echoed 1 Chronicles 16:12 or vice versa. So, finding intertextuality between the New Testament and the Book of Mormon should be a source of wonder for modern readers.

Divine timekeeping is superior to mortal reckoning Moses 1:6. So, what seems anachronistic to us may be the power of God at work in the world inspiring various people in various places at various times. That is the clear message of 2 Nephi 29. 2 Nephi9 29:2 in particular says the words of the Nephites in the Book of Mormon will come through God's own mouth and be His own words. So, when we see Moses Deuteronomy 32:35 quoted by Isaiah Isaiah 34:8, Isaiah 35:4 and Jeremiah Jeremiah 51:6, the question becomes who quoted whom when Paul used similar terminology writing to both the Romans Romans 12:19 and the Jews Hebrews 10:30? In what way did the voice of the Lord come to Mormon Mormon 3:14  as he included the same words in his own writings Mormon 3:15? To what scripture was Moroni₂ referring when he engraved his own version of the famous passage Mormon 8:20? We know that content has flowed and will flow freely between different groups of people 2 Nephi 29:13. We also know there is an underlying unity to God's word 2 Nephi 29:14 analogous to the latter-day gathering of Israel. In the final analysis the historical transmission process underlying textual criticism does not adequately account for the divine hand of providence at work in sacred writ. The real question then becomes "Is text X the word of God yes or no?" In the case of the Book of Mormon the answer is unequivocally yes.
--
Royal Skousen holds a PhD in Linguistics from the University of Illinois. He is a Professor of Linguistics and English at BYU. He has been the editor of the Book of Mormon Critical Text since 1988. His presentation was entitled "A theory! A theory! We have already got a theory, and there cannot be any more theories!"

Skousen has a wonderfully dry, understated wit. Audiences have to pay attention because, like Nibley, some of Skousens best comments are unscripted & off the cuff. This is what we know about the translation process from eyewitnesses:

• The text of the Book of Mormon was revealed to Joseph Smith word for word
• The Prophet was not at liberty to express ideas in his own words
• Words appeared in the interpreters or the seer stone
• Joseph's head was buried in a hat to exclude light so he could better read the words 
• Joseph could see 20 - 30 words at a time
• He read aloud about 10 words at a time to his scribe who wrote them down
• The scribe then read the text back to Joseph who compared it with the revealed words
• When Joseph and his scribe felt they had the right words recorded, the divine display changed
• The translation team worked for about 6 hours per day
• Proper names were spelled out the first time they appeared
• The process was transparent, out in the open, seen by all
• The plates themselves, nearby but not consulted, were wrapped up in a cloth of some kind
• After breaks, Joseph Smith began where they had left off without notes or prompting

6 people left us eyewitness accounts of the translation methodology. One of the most important was Michael Morris, Emma Smith's brother-in-law. Morris never joined the Church.

The Book of Mormon text uses systematic phraseology. 131 expressions appear 100% of the time, without exception. This remarkable standardization was a big help in the process of re-constructing the original text. Skousen's first inkling that the text may be pre-modern came in 1998 when Renee Bangerter suggested the "ceremony" in Mosiah 19:24 may actually be "sermon."  The OED showed sermon meaning talk or conversation, but that usage died out after 1594. Then in 2003 Christian Gellinek suggested "pleading bar" for "pleasing bar" in Jacob 6:13. Pleading bars in judicial settings are attested in the 1600's.

Once he began looking for archaic vocabulary, EModE terms were evident throughout the text:

• require meaning request
• cast arrows meaning shoot arrows
• wrap meaning roll
• for the multitude meaning as many as could
• but if meaning unless
• counsel meaning to counsel with
• depart meaning divide in parts
• errand meaning message
• extinct meaning dead
• detect meaning expose
• withstand meaning oppose
• retain meaning take back
• thou meaning plural
• descendant meaning plural
• view meaning vision
• unwearingness meaning unweariness
• to become for oneself meaning to become of age, to become independent
• morrow month meaning next month
• wist meaning know

Helaman 13:37 "in them days" (Yale Text) is boorish modern English. It was acceptable EModE usage. The word "and" in an interruptive or extended subordination clause takes you back to the main clause. EModE has multiple instances of "and" that we would consider run-on sentences in modern English. Examples are 1 Nephi 8:13, 3 Nephi 23:8 and Moroni 10:4. Book of Mormon vocabulary is filtered, massaged and carefully prepared. Every word was known to Joseph Smith and his scribes, although many meanings had changed since the EModE era.

The Book of Mormon fits well in the 1500's. It takes an expansive view of mankind in line with the renaissance, enlightenment and reformation. It deals with many of the issues that were debated in reformed Protestantism.

Abinadi was burned at the stake as a heretic. Mosiah 17:13 should read "scorched" not "scourged." During the 1500's, many people were burned at the stake along with their scriptures. "Secret combinations" describe Catholic and subversive political groups, not freemasons. The Book of Mormon refines the KJV resolutions of the Tyndale/More debate. The Book of Mormon is definitely low church in its practices, but high church in many of its doctrines. Mosiah₂ and Alma₁ had to wrestle with the same church/state issues that plagued the 1500's and 1600's. The Book of Mormon solution that excommunication was not a civil crime Mosiah 26:35-26 eventually became obvious to western society generally after the tumultuous EModE years.

The Book of Mormon shows the hand of the Lord. Joseph Smith was not really its translator. He was its transmitter through divine instrumentality.
--
John W. (Jack) Welch read Greek Philosophy at Oxford and holds a JD from Duke. He is the Robert K. Thomas Professor of Law at BYU.

All the presenters deserve our thanks and praise. "Thank" and "praise" are the same word in both Greek and Hebrew. Jack began serving as General Editor of BYU Studies in 1991. Since that time many significant discoveries have helped us better understand the Book of Mormon. The Book of Mormon is very complicated. We must take it seriously. Superficiality is quite offensive to the Lord. The presenters in this conference have taken a new tack and are examining the text through the lens of new disciplines. Practically every academic discipline has something important to contribute that will help elucidate the Book of Mormon. Welch then listed well over a dozen disciplines that have shed light on the Nephite text in our day. These include Arabic, the discovery of the Hittites in 1950, the Dead Sea Scrolls, Hebraisms, Statistics, Botany, Geography, Theology and now Historical Linguistics. Noting that March 14, 2015 was the 10th year anniversary of Hugh Nibley's funeral, Welch commented that Hugh would have enjoyed these conference proceedings.

In a sacred text, every word counts for something. For years we thought bad grammar was an embarrassing weakness in the Book of Mormon. Looking at it now through an EModE lens we know it is one of the text's greatest strengths. We will find Hebrew, Elizabethan English, 19th century, 20th century, and even 21st century phraseology in the Book of Mormon. It is simply a miraculous, marvelous translation.

Some of the research we take for granted today was not possible before the computer age. We now have the Yale text that we can compare quickly with many other databases. Jack has found over 3,000 possible New Testament phrases in the Book of Mormon. We know, for instance, that Alma 32 quotes from both the OT and NT. It includes wording from 22 discrete passages in many different books of the Bible. That level of synchronicity is beyond human capacity.

Church historians of an earlier era were embarrassed at the image of Joseph Smith with his head buried in his hat. The hat is our strongest evidence of a divine translation through the gift and power of God. Joseph Smith was not consulting reference materials. He was not collaborating with a team of experts. He was reading words that appeared on a stone in the bottom of a hat. The whole thing is simply astonishing and supernatural.

Joseph put his face in a hat to shut out light so the words appearing on his seer stone were easier to read. This is a direct fulfillment of Alma 37:23 interpreted in light of pre-1981 editions of D&C Sections 78, 82 & 104 where Joseph Smith is called "Gazelam."

Article last updated April 10, 2020. 

Rabinal Achi

In 2008 I took family members to St. Peter Stiftskeller Restaurant in Salzburg. Housed in a cave, the establishment claims to be the oldest restaurant in Central Europe. We enjoyed a unique ambiance dining in a place that has been serving food to travelers for over 1,200 years.

I can only imagine the thrill of attending a play that has been performed since the early 1400's. That is possible each January in Rabinal, Baja Verapaz, Gautemala. The drama is called Rabinal Achi "Man of Rabinal" aka Xajoj Tun "Dance of the Trumpets." It is the only precontact Mayan theater extant. The definitive modern edition of this UNESCO-designated masterpiece was published by Oxford University Press in 2003.

Pre-contact Guatemalan Play

Dennis Tedlock, translator, spent his career as a distinguished member of the English and Anthropology faculties at SUNY Buffalo. Tedlock is best known for his widely-read translation of Popol Vuh published by Simon & Schuster in 1985 with a revised & expanded edition in 1996.

In the 1400's the Quiche capital was Utatlan near modern Santa Cruz del Quiche in Quiche. The Kaqchikel capital was Iximche near modern Tecpan Guatemala in Chimaltenango. The Rabinal capital was Rabinal in Baja Verapaz. The play is set in Rabinal and at the fortress on Kaqyuq' "Red Mountain", which overlooks the city from the north. Utatlan was about 70 air kilometers west of Rabinal. Iximche was about 65 air kilometers to the southwest.

Capitals of Quichean Polities ca. AD 1430

The main characters in the drama are:

• Lord Five Thunder, Rabinal ruler
• Man of Rabinal, one of Lord Five Thunder's warriors
• Man of Quiche called Cawek of the Forest People

The most prominent Quiche ruler in that era was K'iq'ab' "Quicab" who took a great deal of Rabinal territory by force. Prior to Quicab's depredations, for instance, the modern towns of Zacualpa and Joyabaj were part of Rabinal's domain and spoke Achi (p. 185). Cawek was one of Quicab's warriors turned outlaw and may even have been his son. As the play opens Man of Rabinal has taken Cawek prisoner. Man of Rabinal eventually takes Cawek to Lord Five Thunder. The play ends with Cawek's execution atop Red Mountain.

This is the second Quichean volume we are analyzing for possible Book of Mormon connections. In the first, Kaqchikel Chronicles, we found 117 parallels. This article will continue the numbering system from that previous article with the addition of "k" for a correspondence found in Kaqchikel Chronicles and "r" for a parallel from Rabinal Achi. When a person, place, or thing is found in both Kaqchikel Chronicles and Rabinal Achi both "k" and "r" are present.

1 k r. Rabinal Achi was originally in the Achi dialect of K'iche' Mayan, recorded in Latin characters and then translated into various European languages beginning in 1862 (p. 208).

5 k r. Females have small roles in Rabinal Achi, but not speaking parts.

12 k r. Rabinal Achi contains a thorough mixing of history with religion and metaphysics.

18 k r. Rabinal lands were north of the Motagua. This large east-west river was a major boundary in Rabinal geography.

23 k r. Rabinal Achi is full of parallelisms and repetitions. The speakers typically parrot what the other just said before presenting their new material (p. 221). Even a listener who does not understand K'iche' can tell the performers are speaking in parallel verse (p. 16).

25 k r, 26 k r. Man of Rabinal asked Cawek "where is your mountain? where is your valley?" (p. 30). In other words, where are you from?

28 k r. Cawek expects his posterity to revere his memory (p. 105).

34 k r. A play called Baile de San Jorge is popular in Rabinal. It recounts the myth of Saint George and the dragon with touches that recall the ubiquitous Mesoamerican plumed serpent (p. 188).

37 k r, 70 k r. Cawek, portending his fate, describes himself as a drop of water (p. 35).

40 k r. Cawek says his descendants will hear his words (p. 105).

43 k r. Lord Five Thunder's mountaintop fortress had great walls (p. 34).

48 k r. The Quiche and Rabinal peoples considered themselves "elder and younger brother one to the other" (p. 70).

55 k r. The Rabinal paid tribute to the Quiche (p. 153).

57 k r. Man of Rabinal and Cawek describe a military confrontation "down in the canyons, up on the heights" (pp. 63, 69).

65 k r. Lord Five Thunder had a mun "slave" attending him (pp. 1, 309).

68 k r. Man of Rabinal began many sentences with the phrase "To tell the truth" (p. 52).

78 k r. The Quiche capital, Utatlan, had two citadels. The Rabinal called them Q'umarka'j and Chi Ismachi' "Old Camp and Whisker Place" (p. 65).

100 k r. Lord Five Thunder's vassals harvested honey for his sustenance (p. 36).

104 k r. Ajaw Job' Toj "Lord Five Thunder" bore the name of Jun Toj "One Thunder," patron deity of the Rabinal nation (p. 344).
--
118 r. Lord Five Thunder employed the services of two warrior priests costumed as apex predators kot "eagle" and b'alam "jaguar" representing powerful forces of nature (p. 1). The Book of Mormon represents the entire animal kingdom with the phrase "beasts of the field and the fowls of the air" 2 Nephi 2:13, Alma 34:10.

119 r. Lord Five Thunder's young maiden daughter was called Uchuch Q'uq', Uchuch Raxom "Mother of Quetzal Feathers, Mother of Glistening Green (p. 345). When presented to Cawek, she carried additional titles "(Mother) of jade, of precious beads." The resplendent quetzal bird was sacred in ancient Mesoamerica and jade had great religious and spiritual value. The young girl is precious because she will fetch a high bride price. The Book of Mormon also calls a maiden a mother, describing a virgin who will give birth to deity 1 Nephi 11:18, 2 Nephi 17:14. The text describes her as precious Alma 7:10.

120 r. Cawek of the Forest People was a renegade, not cultivating crops, and on the run (pp. 1, 30, 54, 56). The Book of Mormon describes a group of outlaws Helaman 11:28 who lived in the wilderness Helaman 11:31, did not cultivate crops 3 Nephi 4:19-20, and were hunted from place to place Helaman 6:37.

121 r. Throughout the play, the couplets "ax and shield" (p. 1) or "weapon and shield" (p. 30) represent military power. Moroni₂ translated the similar couplet "with their swords and with their shields" from the Jaredite records Ether 15:24.

122 r. The stone ax was an important weapon and symbol in Maya culture (p. 2) as it was in the Book of Mormon Enos 1:20, Mormon 6:9.

123 r. The terms "sky, earth" are invoked dozens of times in Rabinal Achi. This is an abbreviated version of the ancient phrase "Heart of Sky, Heart of Earth" referring to deity (p. 2). The Book of Mormon version of this phrase is "heaven and earth" 2 Nephi 25:12, Jacob 2:5, Mosiah 4:9 which appears dozens of times in the text referring to the power of God 2 Nephi 29:7.

124 r. Quiche kings, including the most famous, Quicab, were from the lineage of Cawek (p. 3). Nephite kings were descendants of Nephi Mosiah 25:13.

125 r. Cawek declared that because of his capture, his destiny had been turned upside down (p. 4). This same idea is expressed in the Book of Mormon in a similar way 2 Nephi 27:27 citing Isaiah 29:16.

126 r. Rabinal Achi, like much of Mesoamerican literature, is fatalistic with emphasis on prophecies and fulfillment (p. 4). Ditto the Book of Mormon 1 Nephi 12:20, 1 Nephi 13:35, Alma 45:10-11, Helaman 13:8-10 which goes to great lengths to document prophecies fulfilled Mormon 8:6-7.

127 r. Cawek was put on trial before he was executed (p. 5). Alma 51:19 shows this was standard practice among the Nephites as well. Abinadi Mosiah 17:7 and Nehor Alma 1:10 both went through formal legal proceedings before being executed. See the blog article "The Legal Cases in the Book of Mormon."

128 r. Cawek confessed to multiple misdeeds before he was dispatched (p. 5). In the Book of Mormon some malefactors confessed their sins before they died Jacob 7:16-20, Alma 1:15, Alma 30:52-59.

129 r. Cawek was executed atop Red Mountain. The top of Hill Manti was a place of execution in the lesser land of Zarahemla Alma 1:15.

130 r. At one point in the drama, Cawek drinks a beverage Lord Five Thunder calls poison (p. 16). Poison figures in the Book of Mormon narrative as well Alma 47:18, Alma 55:30-32.

131 r. Cawek wished he could chop through "the root, the trunk" of Lord Five Thunder's family (p. 17) to eradicate the bloodline. The Book of Mormon also uses a tree as a metaphor for a family 2 Nephi 21:1 citing Isaiah 11:1, The entire chapter of Jacob 5 is an extended allegory in which trees represent people. Cawek's wording is similar to 3 Nephi 25:1 where the Savior cites Malachi 4:1 to mean a wicked person's bloodline can be destroyed at the root. In the Book of Mormon the phrase "hewn down" refers explicitly to trees 3 Nephi 14:19 and to people Mormon 6:11.

132 r. Cawek raised a rebel army that threatened his own people (p. 17). This scenario plays out repeatedly in the Book of Mormon Alma 2:10, Alma 48:1-3, Helaman 1:15.

133 r. Lord Five Thunder briefly considered the possibility that under different circumstances Cawek could have become his son-in-law (p. 17). In the Book of Mormon King Lamoni offered Ammon his daughter's hand in marriage Alma 17:24.

134 r. Cawek was promised land as a reward for military service (p. 18). The Book of Mormon records an instance where Lamanites were given land following military service Alma 62:29.

135 r. In a military campaign, Cawek spied on enemy forces (p. 18). Spies were common in Book of Mormon military strategies Mosiah 9:1, Alma 2:21, Alma 56:35.

136 r. The Rabinal believed land could be cursed (p. 18). The Book of Mormon repeatedly mentions land being cursed Jacob 3:3, Alma 37:28, 3 Nephi 3:24.

137 r. Man of Rabinal, a decorated warrior, had a gem inserted in a nose piercing (pp. 26, 278). The Book of Mormon mentions a nose jewel 2 Nephi 13:21 citing Isaiah 3:21.

138 r. The Rabinal bound captives with henequen rope or cord (pp. 28, 75). In the Book of Mormon captives were bound with strong cords Alma 14:22, Alma 20:29, Alma 26:29.

139 r. In his second speech, Cawek issued the injunctive E'ja "Listen!" (p. 31). The Book of Mormon equivalent is "give ear" 2 Nephi 4:3, 2 Nephi 9:40, Alma 36:1 or "hearken" Mosiah 2:9.

140 r. In his second speech, Cawek used the mournful exclamation "Alas" two times in a couplet invoking deity (p. 31). The Book of Mormon equivalent is "wo, wo" which is used in various contexts involving deity 1 Nephi 1:13, Mosiah 3:12, 3 Nephi 29:5.

141 r. Words spoken by Man of Rabinal caused Cawek's face and teeth to hurt (p. 31). The Book of Mormon mentions a painful condition called gnashing of teeth Mosiah 16:2, Alma 14:21, Alma 40:13. The Book of Mormon also describes God's mouth and lips as active agents whose words can smite and slay 2 Nephi 30:9.

142 r. Cawek addressed Man of Rabinal with the honorific title "Man of Glory" (p. 32). In the Book of Mormon, meritorious humans achieve glory 1 Nephi 14:14, Jacob 4:11, Alma 14:11. High ranking officials have earthly glory 2 Nephi 18:7, 2 Nephi 24:18, Ether 8:9. Glory is promised to the righteous in the hereafter Alma 22:14, Alma 36:28.

143 r. Cawek, in self-effacement, called himself a little bird (p. 35). The Book of Mormon compares rebellious Israel to small chicks 3 Nephi 10:4-6.

144 r. Man of Rabinal accused Cawek of enticing Lord Five Thunder's subjects to rebel and leave his service (pp. 36, 58). Rebel leaders enticed Nephite dissenters to change loyalties and abandon their homeland Helaman 11:25, 3 Nephi 1:28.

145 r. Nine Rabinal warriors died in battle and their forearms were used for the casualty count (p. 37). When Ammon maimed and killed robbers at the waters of Sebus, his Lamanite colleagues brought severed arms as proof of his exploits when they made their report to King Lamoni Alma 17:39.

146 r. The Rabinal conceived of their capital city as the navel of the sky, navel of the earth (p. 38). The Nephite equivalent was "center" Helaman 1:24-27 or "heart" Helaman 1:18 of the land.

147 r. The Rabinal had a place they called Pan Cha'lib' "Bountiful" or "Abundance" near Xoyab'aj "Joyabaj" (pp. 42, 292). The place name Bountiful is attested more than 30 times in the Nephite text Alma 53:3.

The Rabinal Bountiful in Context

148 r. The Rabinal used cacao beans as media of exchange, as well as q'ana "yellow" and saqi "white" pwaq "money." Gold was yellow and silver was white. (pp. 49, 295). Among the Nephites, gold and silver served as stores of value and media of exchange Mosiah 22:12, Alma 11:7.

149 r. The Rabinal conceived their world as having chi kaj pa "four edges" and chi kaj xukutal "four corners" (pp. 50, 296). The Nephites conceived their world as having four quarters 1 Nephi 19:16, 3 Nephi 5:24-26.

150 r. The Rabinal thought of territory as being pa jun warab' al "a day's journey" or pa kay warab' al "two days' journey" in length or width. A literal translation would be "one place to sleep" or "two places to sleep" (pp. 50, 296). The Nephite standard unit of distance measure was one day's journey Mosiah 23:3, Alma 8:6, Alma 22:32, Helaman 4:7. See the blog articles "Land Southward Travel Times" and "Test #6 Relative Distances." See also the blog article "Quichean Distance Measurement."

151 r. In his sixth speech, Man of Rabinal says Cawek lost his strength through misdeeds and no longer enjoyed a comparative military advantage over his enemies (pp. 52, 57). Mosiah 1:13 prophecies a time when the Nephites will become weak because of sin and no longer prevail over the Lamanites. Helaman 4:24 and Mormon 2:26 record fulfillment of that prophecy.

152 r. Man of Rabinal gloried in his numerous posterity of descendants, children and sons (p. 53). Nephi saw in vision multitudes of Lehite descendants 1 Nephi 12:1.

153 r. The Rabinal recognized a standard unit of distance measure they called a k'a'm "cord" (pp. 55, 342). It equalled twenty strides or ten paces, about 18 meters. The Nephites had a standard unit of distance measure. See point #150 above. The Nephites also had standard units of measure for value Alma 11:4, volume of grain Alma 11:7, and time 3 Nephi 8:2.

154 r. Rabinal Achi mentions about two dozen place names, most of which can be correlated with known places on the modern map.

Geonyms Attested in Rabinal Achi

The extent of the territory attested in the play is about 130 kilometers X 80 kilometers. Contained within that area are parts of the K'iche', Kaqchikel, and Q'eqchi' domains. The wars described in the text reduced Rabinal holdings to about 900 square kilometers which is consistent with the sizes we have proposed for Nephite and Lamanite lands. See the blog article "Test #7 Land Areas."

155 r. In Cawek's fifth speech he says that Rabinal lands are not extensive, approximately one day's journey, two days' journey across (p. 50). This map shows the approximate extent of Rabinal lands ca. AD 1430 to which Cawek was referring.

Rabinal Territory ca. AD 1430 

This area is very close to 30 air kilometers in diameter. 15 air kilometers is the metric we derived for the Nephite standard unit of distance measure "one day's journey." See the blog article "Land Southward Travel Times." The Rabinal distance "one day's journey" also meant about 15 air kilometers. 7.7 air kilometers from Chicabracan to Utatlan were less than a day's journey (p. 184). In fact, they were one-half a day's journey (p. 258) which closely corroborates the 15 air kilometers per day metric. The fact that 9.5 air kilometers from Between the Wasps Nests to Pitted and Planted were less than one day's march (p. 254) further corroborates this distance.

156 r. Cultures worldwide recognize that earthquakes shake the earth. The Rabinal had the curious idea that both the sky and the earth could shake (p. 58). The Nephites & Jaredites had the same idea 2 Nephi 23:13 citing Isaiah 13:13, Ether 4:9.

157 r. Cawek led an army that moved from Big Tree north to Lord's Place "Chichicastenango" and then north to Earthquake "Chicabracan". At that point the text says they were a "very short distance" from the Quiche capital, Utatlan "Quiche Mountain, Quiche Valley" aka "Old Camp & Whisker Place" (p. 59). How long was a very short distance in Rabinal parlance? 7.71 air kilometers as the map below shows.

Very Short Distance from Earthquake to Quiche Capital

The Book of Mormon uses the terms "near" and "by" to designate places that are close to each other. In the blog article "Things Near and Far" we analyzed all occurrences of the word "near" in a spatial context and concluded that two places must be within 5 kilometers to be near each other in the Nephite worldview. Looking at the word "by" in the blog article "By and By" we concluded that two places must be within 25 kilometers and have a clear border to be by each other in Nephite usage. The Rabinal idea that less than 8 kilometers was a very short distance fits the Book of Mormon pattern. The Book of Mormon would have said they were by each other, recognizing the river between them as a border.

158 r. In Man of Rabinal's seventh speech, we learn that when Lord Five Thunder was outside the walls of his fortress, he was heavily guarded (p. 62). When King Limhi ventured outside the walls of the city of Nephi, he had his guards with him Mosiah 7:10.

159 r. In Rabinal Achi, planting crops was considered a noble virtue (p. 66) as it was in the Book of Mormon Enos 1:20-21, Alma 62:29.

160 r. Cawek, a foreign noble, offered to be a servant in the household of Lord Five Thunder (p. 71). Ammon, one-time heir to the Nephite throne, offered to be a servant in the household of King Lamoni Alma 17:25.

161 r. Cawek reminded Man of Rabinal that it would be a mark of greatness if he let his prisoner of war go free (p. 71). The quintessential great Nephite military commander, Moroni₁ let thousands of prisoners of war go free during his illustrious career Alma 44:15, Alma 44:20, Alma 62:27-28.

162 r. Rabinal Achi has several passages where personal possessions are mentioned. The list always includes the couplet q'ana and saqi "gold and silver." The Book of Mormon uses some form of the couplet "gold and silver" 43 times in describing personal property 1 Nephi 3:16, Jacob 1:16, Mosiah 22:12.

163 r. Just before he took his captive to Lord Five Thunder, Man of Rabinal itemized Cawek's personal effects. He had gold and silver, weapons, and apparel (pp. 70, 72). Lists containing gold, silver, and apparel occur several times in the Book of Mormon 1 Nephi 13:7, Alma 1:29, Ether 9:17.

164 r. In his eighth speech, Man of Rabinal said he was perfected and completed because of his Lord (pp. 72, 73). Moroni₂ admonishes us to be perfected in Christ Moroni 10:32.

165 r. Since Cawek's was a capital case, his fate could only be decided by the Rabinal supreme ruler (p. 73). In Nephite times, only the governor could authorize a death warrant 3 Nephi 6:22-15.

166 r. Man of Rabinal said it was an act of God that caused Cawek to fall under his  power (p. 75). The Book of Mormon repeatedly says God delivers people either into Mosiah 11:21, Alma 44:3, or out of Mosiah 2:4, Alma 58:37 the hands of their enemies.

167 r. Man of Rabinal described several fortresses and sets of defensive walls presided over by multiple lords (p. 76). Moroni₁ caused fortifications to be built around every Nephite city Alma 50:1.

168 r. Lord Five Thunder in his palace had a bench adorned with metal (p. 79). King Noah in his palace had a throne ornamented with gold and silver Mosiah 11:9.

169 r. In the Rabinal palace nobles had rainment adorned with metal (p. 79). The Zoramites had costly apparel with ornaments of gold Alma 31:28.

170 r. Craftsmen worked metal and jade inside the walls of Lord Five Thunder's fortress (p. 78). Artisans worked wood, copper, and brass insides the walls of King Noah's temple Mosiah 11:10.

171 r. Lord Five Thunder delighted in an alcoholic beverage that brought him dreams (p. 79). King Noah made wine in abundance and became a wine-bibber Mosiah 11:15.

172 r. The Rabinal had fabric with double warp, tamped weft and weaving tightly done (pp. 79, 86). The Jaredites and Nephites possessed fine silks, fine-twined linen, and all manner of precious clothing 1 Nephi 13:7, Helaman 6:13, Ether 10:24.

173 r. Lord Five Thunder expected respectful subjects to bow and lower their face in his presence (pp. 81, 87). Lamanite emperors expected their subjects to bow before them Alma 22:2, Alma 47:22-23.

174 r. The Rabinal were familiar with both highland and lowland topographies (p. 83). In the Book of Mormon, relative elevation differences are distinguished by the words "up" and "down." See the blog article "Test #1 Ups and Downs."

175 r. Man of Rabinal's weapons were gifts from Lord Five Thunder (p. 83). In the Book of Mormon, Moroni₁ provided defensive armaments and weapons to his soldiers Alma 43:19, Alma 55:16-17. Amalickiah armed his Lamanite soldiers Alma 51:9.

176 r. In Rabinal Achi, mud is associated with humility (p. 91). The equivalent term in the Book of Mormon is "dust of the earth" Mosiah 2:25, Mosiah 4:2, Helaman 12:7.

177 r. Among the Rabinal, being dead was equated with being lost (p. 100). The Book of Mormon also associates death with being lost Mosiah 16:4-7, Alma 12:22-24, Alma 42:6.

The 2003 edition of Rabinal Achi includes 31 images of Maya, Mixtec, and Aztec art that illustrate aspects of the drama. Proveniences of that art are shown as triangle symbols on the map below. Light blue pushpins identify locations mentioned in the play.

Origin Sites of Art Illustrating Facets of Rabinal Achi

Of particular interest are Chama, our correlate for the city of Manti, Palenque and Pomona which are in the territory we identify as the lesser land of Zarahemla, and Yaxchilan in the area we correlate with the land of Melek.

178 r. Attending certain royal ceremonies demonstrated loyalty to the king (p. 134). King Lamoni was threatened for not attending a feast given by his father, the Lamanite emperor Alma 20:9.

179 r. The Rabinal thought of lightning and meteors as divine weapons (p. 135). The Mayan name K'ak' Tiliw Kan Chaak meant "thunderbolt fire that burns in the sky (p. 141). The Book of Mormon describes lightning as being under divine control Helaman 14:26 and calls it part of "the fire of the anger of the Lord" 2 Nephi 26:6.

180 r. Nobles among the Rabinal were almost certainly familiar with the Caribbean (p. 136). In our correlation, the Caribbean is the Book of Mormon's east sea.

181 r. The Quichean peoples understood the word patan "burden" to also mean an office or duty (p. 140). Ditto in the Book of Mormon 2 Nephi 24:25 citing Isaiah 14:25, Mosiah 29:34.

182 r. Cawek was executed by decapitation (p. 145). Decapitation is attested in the Book of Mormon 2 Nephi 4:18, 1 Nephi 22:13, Ether 9:5, Ether 15:30-31.

183 r. The Maya linked lineages with named places (p. 147). The Nephites linked lineages with place names Alma 8:7.

184 r. Classic Maya carved stone stelae were called te' tun "tree stone." Royals had their lineage trees engraved on their stones (p. 149). Coriantumr, former Jaredite king, carved his genealogy on his stela Omni 1:22.

185 r. Quichean lords fasted and prayed for their people (p. 139). Fasting and prayer are mentioned together as a couplet nine times in the Book of Mormon Omni 1:26, Mosiah 27:23, Moroni 6:5.

186 r. Rabinal Achi was performed originally from a glyphic book of some sort. Hieroglyphic texts are extremely terse. The pictorial version may have been more like program notes for the play rather than an actual script or libretto (pp. 158, 239). Nephite scribes, engraving characters in reformed Egyptian on metal plates, were hindered in their expression because of the terse nature of their language. They were trading articulation facility for archival longevity Jacob 4:1, Ether 12:24-25.

187 r. Rabinal Achi has many literary flashbacks (p. 174). The Book of Mormon has many literary flashbacks such as the records of the Zeniff colony in Mosiah 9-22 and the account of the sons of Mosiah's fourteen year mission to the Lamanites in Alma 17-26.

188 r. Throughout ancient Mesoamerica, kings were killed by assasins (p. 179). The Book of Mormon records several instances of rulers being killed by assasins Helaman 6:15, Helaman 9:6, Ether 9:6, Ether 14:9.

189 r. Quicab, Quiche antagonist behind the scenes in Rabinal Achi, forbade his subjects "to travel the roads" which meant he did not want them to migrate (p. 182). This recalls the incident with the people of Morianton chased by Teancum and his army Alma 50:33.

190 r. In Rabinal Achi, rebels outside the bounds of legitimate political authority are "forest people" (p. 183). Tn the Book of Mormon, rebels outside the bounds of legitimate political authority live in the "wilderness" Helaman 2:11, Helaman 11:31.

191 r. Rabinal Achi implies the second Kaqchikel capital, Iximche, was founded in a time of hunger (p. 184). The Book of Mormon uses the term "famine" 31 times 2 Nephi 1:18, Helaman 11:8, Ether 10:1.

192 r. Rabinal Achi almost always describes Lord Five Thunder's headquarters complex on Red Mountain as nimal "great" (p. 198). A number of cities in the Book of Mormon are called "great" 1 Nephi 11:13, Alma 16:9, Helaman 13:12,

193 r. Prayers in K'iche' Mayan address Tiox, supreme celestial deity, then Juyub' Taq'aj "Mountain-Valley," ultimate terrestrial deity; followed by qatit qaman, "our grandmothers our grandfathers" referring to ancestors (p. 216). This heaven, earth, ancestor combination also appears in the Book of Mormon. 1 Nephi 1:14 combines Father Lehi with the Lord God of heaven and earth. 3 Nephi 15-17 includes Jesus Christ, creator of heavens and earth, and the sons of God. Ether 4:7 describes the brother of Jared and Jesus Christ, Father of heavens and earth.

194 r. Professional orators ply their trade in highland Maya towns today (p. 239). The Book of Mormon has many instances where preachers and politicians influenced their audiences through flattery Jacob 7:2, Alma 30:47, Ether 8:2.

195 r. Prayers are offered around household altars in highland Maya homes (p. 241). Nephi₂ prayed atop the tower in his household garden Helaman 7:10-11.

196 r. The highland Maya use candles (p. 241) as did the Nephites 3 Nephi 8:21.

197 r. Rabinal Achi mentions bloodletting rituals (p. 248). The Book of Mormon describes blood as an active agent with salvific properties Mosiah 3:16, Alma 21:9, Helaman 5:9.

198 r. In the play, Cawek gives his words the power of an oath by invoking deity (p. 249). Oaths are mentioned dozens of times in the Book of Mormon 1 Nephi 4:37, Mosiah 19:25, Alma 44:11.

199 r. Man of Rabinal believed his power as a warrior came from a divine source (p. 249). This idea is well attested in the Book of Mormon Mosiah 1:13, Helaman 4:24, 3 Nephi 3:2,

200 r. In the play, Man of Rabinal insults Cawek by asking if he was born of clouds or mist (p. 250). This slanders Cawek's parentage. The Book of Mormon has the insulting expressions "child of hell" Alma 11:23, Alma 54:11 and "sons of a liar" Alma 20:13.

201 r. The Rabinal continue to maintain a number of shrines with hearths where pilgrims burn offerings. Five of those shrines are visited prior to each re-enactment of Rabinal Achi. Book of Mormon peoples considered burnt offerings part of their observance of the law of Moses 1 Nephi 5:9, Mosiah 2:3.

202 r. Man of Rabinal's seventh speech gives us some useful information about distances. He was marking boundaries around Lake Atitlan, mentioning Sculpture Tree (Panajachel) and two other places whose precise location is unknown. He then "traversed the length and breadth of the mountains and valleys" (p. 62) to rescue Lord Five Thunder at Bath. Tedlock interprets his words to mean he made a long journey (p. 259). We can map the distance from Panajachel to Bath.

65 Air Kilometers Sculpture Tree to Bath

It turns out to be a little over 4 days' journey using the metric described in point #155 above. The Book of Mormon would have called this several days' journey.

203 r. Rabinal Achi distinguishes between civilized, settled people living a courtly life and barbarians wandering around the forests (p. 262). The Book of Mormon makes a similar distinction between Nephites and Lamanites Jarom 1:6, Enos 1:20-21.

204 r. Man of Rabinal surrendered his weapons to find rest (p. 264). The Book of Mormon associates weapons surrender with peace Alma 24:19, Alma 44:14-15.

205 r. Cawek wished he could bind Lord Five Thunder's lower lip to his upper lip (p. 265). In other words, he wished he could curse Lord Five Thunder to become mute. The Book of Mormon records instances of leaders being struck dumb through a curse Mosiah 27:19, Alma 30:50.

206 r. Cawek addressed Lord Five Thunder as a mere mortal, not a demi-god (p. 265). King Benjamin dismissed the notion that he was anything more than a mortal man Mosiah 2:10-11.

207 r. Cawek engaged in a ritual invoking the four cardinal directions east, west, north and south (p. 266). The Book of Mormon makes it clear the Nephites thought of space in terms of these same four cardinal directions 2 Nephi 29:11, Mosiah 27:6, 3 Nephi 20:13.

208 r. The highland Maya conceived of an ideal city state as a town and its surrounding lands. Hills surrounded the town and mountains surrounded the hills (p. 269). Lands in the Book of Mormon follow this city state pattern. A principal city is surrounded by its adjacent lands Mosiah 7:21, Mosiah 23:25, Alma 43:25. Lands contain hills Alma 1:15, Mormon 1:3, Mormon 6:2. Lands border wilderness Omni 1:13, Alma 8:5, Alma 31:3, Wilderness can be mountainous Helaman 11:31, 3 Nephi 3:20.

This list of correspondences continues in the blog articles entitled "Quichean Directionality" and "Titulo de Totonicapan."

Driven Snow

I am indebted to Ted Stoddard who provided the information that led to this research. His excellent article entitled "The Whiteness of the Driven Snow: An Evaluation of the Word 'Snow' in the Book of Mormon" is hosted on the BMAF website.

1 Nephi 11:8 is the Book of Mormon's only reference to wintry weather, but it is clear from that verse Nephi₁ had some knowledge of snow. That knowledge could have come from the version of the Old Testament contained on the brass plates of Laban. Pre-exilic books in the King James Version of the Old Testament mention the word "snow" 18 times. 7 of those verses contain the simile "white as snow" which is the sense of Nephi's meaning.

Nephi₁ could also have had first-hand experience with snow either in the Old World or the New.

Old World

• Mount Hermon, the highest peak in Israeli-controlled territory at 2,236 meters, receives enough snowfall to support skiing most years. Mt. Hermon Ski Resort opened in 1971. It has 5 chairlifts and 14 runs with a combined length of 45 kilometers. The resort capacity is 12,000 skiers a day on the mountain.
• Jerusalem and environs experience occasional snowstorms. For the unusually heavy snows of 1950 that blanketed even the shores of the Dead Sea, see the Wikipedia article "1950 Snow in Israel." The snow accumulation in Jerusalem reached 60 centimeters that year.
• January 2, 1992 Most parts of Jerusalem were covered with 50 centimeters of snow.
• January 27, 2000 30 centimeters of snow accumulated in Jerusalem. See Ted Stoddard's article above for a photograph and more details.
• December 12-13, 2013 Snow shut down Ben Gurion Airport in Tel Aviv. Some parts of Jerusalem had 40 centimeters accumulation.
• January 7, 2015 20 centimeters of snow fell on Jerusalem, leaving 17,000 homes without power.
• February 21, 2015 35 centimeters of snow accumulated in Jerusalem, closing all roads in and out of the city.

Church of All Nations, Garden of Gethsemane Feb 20, 2015

Snow was not common in Jerusalem ca. 600 BC, but it was not unknown and Nephi₁ certainly could have experienced it during his youth or childhood.

New World

After making landfall along the Pacific coast of Mexico or Central America, we think Nephi₁ spent most of his adult life in what is today Guatemala. Some higher elevations in that country do experience snow. 3 volcanic peaks in Guatemala (Tajumulco, Tacana & Acatenango) rise above 3,960 meters (13,000 feet). Many years, they get snow on top. Arctic peoples famously have many words describing different kinds of snow. The Maya have only one word, "bat," which means both snow and hail, They knew what snow was, even though they didn't see it very often.

This is a photo taken atop Tacana on the Mexico/Guatemala border.

Snow on Tacana, 2010

This is a photo taken on the trail to the summit of Tajumulco in the middle of January, 2010,

Campsite on Tajumulco January, 2010

This photo was taken on the slopes of Tajumulco three years later.

Guatemalans Playing in the Snow on Tajumulco January 26, 2013

Another photo taken that same day about 14 air kilometers away.

Ixchiguan, San Marcos, Guatemala on January 26, 2013

Ixchiguan sits at an elevation of 3,210 meters.

And this is a photo of the twin volcanoes Fuego & Acatenango as seen from Antigua. These impressive peaks rise 2,375 meters above the valley floor. Kaminaljuyu, which we believe was the city of Nephi, is 38 air kilometers from the summit of Acatenango. It is 22 air kilometers from the city of Antigua where this photo was taken. So, if Nephi₁ was at Kaminaljuyu as we suggest, he could have seen a sight similar to this.

Snow atop Fuego & Acatenango January 2013

Snow was not common in Guatemala ca. 600 BC, but it was not unknown. Nephi₁ could have heard about it from others or even experienced it personally.

Kaqchikel Chronicles

I am indebted to Mayaphile Ryan Williams for information that led to this research.

Kaqchikel Chronicles Published by UT Austin

Kaqchikel Chronicles: The Definitive Edition, with translation and exegesis by Judith M. Maxwell and Robert M. Hill II (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006) is a 771 page (Part 1 Introduction and Linguistic Commentary 80 pages, Part 2 The Chronicles 691 pages) book of mytho-historical narratives from highland Guatemala. The largest text in the collection, the Xajil Chronicle aka Anales de los Xahil, was written in Kaqchikel, a Mayan dialect, using Latin characters by Francisco Hernandez Arana Xajila in 1571, He was copying from an earlier indigenous and probably pictorial source no longer extant. Adrian Recinos published a translation called Annals of the Cakchiquels in Spanish (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1950) and English (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1953) bundled with the K'iche' Title of the Lords of Totonicapan. In 1992 native Kaqchikel linguists, U.S. Kaqchikel linguists and anthropologists from several countries collaborated at a University of Texas Maya Hieroglyphic Workshop to re-translate a portion of the text. The landmark 2006 publication eventually resulted from their efforts.

This article will explore many ways the Kaqchikel Chronicles correspond with the Book of Mormon, aka Mormon's Codex: An Ancient American Book (John L. Sorenson's apt terminology).

1. The Kaqchikel Chronicles were originally in Kaqchikel, a post-classic Mesoamerican language, recorded in Latin characters, then translated by scholars into various European languages beginning in 1855 (part 1, page 23). The Book of Mormon was originally in an unknown Mormon 9:34 pre-classic Mesoamerican language with Hebrew roots Mormon 9:33. For a known Mesoamerican language with some demonstrated Hebrew roots, see the blog article "Uto-Aztecan." The Book of Mormon was recorded in reformed Egyptian characters Mormon 9:32. For a powerful demonstration of significant Egyptian influence on the Olmec, read Stephen C. Compton's book Exodus Lost described in a previous blog aritcle. The Book of Mormon was translated with divine aid into Early Modern English (see the blog article "Early Modern English") by unlettered 24-year-old Joseph Smith Jr. and published in 1830. It has since been translated in whole or in part into 113 languages, one of which is Kaqchikel.

2. The precontact Kaqchikel were divided into two groups, a western polity centered on Iximche just south of modern Tecpan, Chimaltenango, Guatemala and an eastern polity centered on Mixco Viejo, Chimaltenango, about 31 kilometers NW of modern Guatemala City. Both Iximche and Mixco Viejo are in what we consider to be the greater land of Nephi in the Book of Mormon's land southward, although neither site existed in Nephite times. The principal settlement in the greater land of Nephi we believe was Kaminaljuyu, now part of urban Guatemala City. Iximche is 50 air kilometers WNW of Kaminaljuyu. Anthropologists believe Mayan or proto Mayan speakers have been in this area since at least early classic times ca. AD 300 and probably much earlier.

3. The documents that make up the chronicles are clearly lineage-centric, focused on the Kaqchikel. Information about the K'iche' and other rival groups is included only as details relate to the Kaqchikel. Heroic origin narratives include others as a way of explaining their existence, but the protagonists are ancestral Kaqchikel. The Book of Mormon is a lineage history focused on the Nephites. Heroic origin narratives mention Lamanites and others, but always from the point of view of the Nephite record-keepers who cast themselves as the good guys.

4. The documents that make up the chronicles come from several genres: origin myth, heroic narrative including military actions, continuous year-count annals, genealogies, tribute lists and court records. The Book of Mormon has all of these and more, including sermons, missionary journals, epistles, etc. Mosiah 7:22 and Mosiah 19:15 are tribute lists. The terrific book The Legal Cases in the Book of Mormon describes Nephite jurisprudential process, including formal court proceedings. Ether 10:31 is one of many elite genealogies in the text. Alma 63:7-9 is a classic year-count annal. Approximately one-eighth of Mormon's abridgement is all about war. 1 Nephi 18 is a fine example of heroic narrative. Even in the first generation, Laman and Lemuel considered their dynastic founding narrative a myth 1 Nephi 2:11.

5. Females are scarce in the pages of the Kaqchikel Chronicles, as they are in the Book of Mormon.

6. The Kaqchikel revered Tulan aka Tollan aka Tula as a faraway place of pre-eminent political power and cultural influence. Nobles received investiture of authority in Tulan. Lowland Maya epigraphy depicts Tulan as a place of cattails. First Teotihuacan, then Toltec Tula Hidalgo with its eastern counterpart, Chichen Itza, and finally Aztec Tenochtitlan all played the role of Tulan in their era (part 1, pages 3-4). We correlate the Book of Mormon city of Jacobugath 3 Nephi 9:9 with Teotihuacan. It was in the northern extremity of Nephite terra cognita 3 Nephi 7:12-13 far beyond Nephite or Lamanite political control. The Nephite far north was a land of lakes and rivers Alma 50:29, Helaman 3:4.

Kaqchikel Iximche and Likely Tollan Sites

Lake Chapala in Jalisco is modern Mexico's largest at 1,100 square kilometers. Lovely Lake Catemaco in the Tuxtlas has a surface area of 74 square kilometers. The largest lake system in Mexico in Book of Mormon times was in the valley where Mexico City sits today. Lake Chalco to the southeast, Lake Xochimilco to the southwest, Lake Texcoco in the middle, Lake Xaltocan to the northeast and Lake Zumpango to the northwest had a combined surface area exceeding 1,400 square kilometers. These were shallow lakes with many islands. Tenochtitlan was on an island in Lake Texcoco. Tula Hidalgo was 33 air kilometers to the NW. The Avenue of the Dead in Teotihuacan was 8 air kilometers to the East. Iximche was about 1,000 air kilometers distant. No rivers are shown in the central Mexican portion of the map above, not because they do not exist, but because it is very tedious to plot rivers as paths in Google Earth and our efforts have been spent in the core Book of Mormon area.

7. Monarchs preserve crown jewels as symbols of legitimacy. The Kaqchikel were no different. Their kingly regalia included gem stones, precious metals, feathers and weapons of war. Nephite crown jewels, passed down dynastic lines, included records on precious metal plates, the Liahona, the sword of Laban Mosiah 1:16 and the gem stone interpreters Mosiah 8:13, Mosiah 28:13-16.

8. The Kaqchikel were organized into (part 1, pages 4-5):

• Chinamit which recent research indicates was a territorial rather than kin unit. These were villages, towns, or cities. Founding lineages enjoyed elite status within their chinamit. 
• Amaq', which was a close alliance of contiguous chinamits. These were regional polities. One of its chinamits was dominant in each amaq'. An amaq' retained its identity and political structure even when its inhabitants migrated en masse to another location. 
• Winaq, which was a confederation of Amaq's. The best English translation is "people" or "nation."

Book of Mormon peoples were organized into:

• Villages, towns, and cities Mosiah 27:6, Alma 23:14, Mormon 5:5. These local polities honored their founders Alma 8:7.
• Lands which were allied contiguous cities. These regional polities had principal cities of the same name Mosiah 23:20, Alma 8:18. The people of Ammon in the land of Jershon migrated en masse to the land of Melek Alma 35:13. Residents of the land of Morianton attempted to move as a group to the land northward Alma 50:25-36.
• The Nephites used both "nation" and "people" to describe their confederation Moroni 8:27.

9. In AD 1493 the Tuquche' amaq' left the Kaqchikel winaq. Ca. 87 BC the people of Amlici in Ammonihah rebelled and temporarily seceded from the Nephite nation Alma 2:9-11. Ca. 74 BC the Zoramites in the land of Antionum left the Nephite nation and joined the Lamanite empire Alma 31:4, Alma 35:11, Alma 43:4.

10. We have a pretty good idea of how large the Kaqchikel winaq was - about 2,900 square kilometers in the modern Guatemalan Departments of Solola, Chimaltenango, Sacatepequez and Guatemala. It had the K'iche' to the north and west, the Aqajal aka Akul aka Chajoma to the NE, Poqomam speakers to the east, Nahuat-speaking Pipil to the south and the Tz'utujil to the SW. This winaq originally had 3 amaq's: Kaqchikel, Sotz'il and Tuquche'.

Approximate Extent of Kaqchikel Winaq

An amaq' was roughly comparable to a land in Nephite and Lamanite affairs. See the blog article "Test #7 Land Areas" for our estimates of Book of Mormon land sizes which are in the ballpark of reasonableness compared with Kaqchikel geography.

11. Among the precontact highland Maya the office of chronicler or historian was passed from father to son. Ditto among the Nephites Jarom 1:1, Jarom 1:15.

12. In the Kaqchikel Chronicles, as in many native Mesoamerican writings, history is thoroughly suffused with religion and metaphysics. The Book of Mormon fits this pattern precisely. Nephi, Mormon, Moroni and the other Book of Mormon authors used history as a vehicle to preach the Gospel of Jesus Christ in their own day and down through the ages 3 Nephi 5:20, Moroni 1:1-4.

13. The translators of the Kaqchikel Chronicles believe the highland Maya followed the same historical recordation patterns eye-witness Bartolome de Las Casas described in his Apologetica Historia de las Indias begun in 1527. Las Casas says native writers documented the foundations of their towns and cities, the election and succession of their rulers, examples of good and bad governance, exploits of valiant military captains, memorable deeds of notable men, and how social customs changed for good or ill over time. The Book of Mormon addresses the same six themes:

• City foundations Alma 50:13-14
• Leadership succession Mosiah 1:9-10, Helaman 1:5
• Good governance Mosiah 2:12-14
• Bad governance Mosiah 11:1-19
• Valiant captains Alma 48:7-17, Alma 62:35-37
• Notable deeds Alma 63:5-7
• Social progress Alma 50:17-23
• Social decline 3 Nephi 6:10-16

14. The first Spaniards who saw native codices compared the characters and figures to Egyptian hieroglyphs. Book of Mormon written language had an explicit Egyptian component 1 Nephi 1:2.

15. Las Casas described five types of native books:

1. Histories tied to the secular calendar with day counts from a base date
2. Festivals and rituals tied to the sacred calendar
3. Dreams and prophecies
4. Rites associated with baptism and names given to infants
5. Rites associated with marriage

Histories with day counts, ritual calendars and divinatory manuals are known to have existed among the Kaqchikel in precontact times. The Book of Mormon contains histories with day counts 3 Nephi 2:4-7, references to the Law of Moses with prescribed rituals and festival days Alma 30:2-3, Mosiah 2:3-6 (Sukkot aka Feast of Booths or Tabernacles) and many prophecies 2 Nephi 26:3, Helaman 13:9. In addition, the Book of Mormon has tractates on baptism Mosiah 18:8-10, Moroni 6:1-4, Moroni 8; receiving a new name Mosiah 5:7-12, 3 Nephi 27:5-6; and marriage Jacob 2,3.

16. The Kaqchikel began using a new secular calendar base date commemorating the Tuquche' revolt on Eleven Aj 1493 (part 1, page 14). The Nephites also changed their calendar base date at important times in their 1,000 year history. For centuries they anchored to Lehi's departure from Jerusalem Jacob 1:1, then to the reign of the judges Alma 4:5, and finally to the advent of the Savior 3 Nephi 2:8.

17. The Kaqchikel consulted a divining stone on military matters (part 1, page 21). The Nephites, too, sought prophetic guidance before embarking on military missions Alma 16:5, Alma 43:23-24.

18  The northern boundaries of the Kaqchikel and Chajoma winaq's was the Motagua River. This same boundary persists today between Guatemalan Departments. Guatemala is south of the Motagua while Baja Verapaz is north of it. Chimaltenango is south while Quiche is north. Our Book of Mormon correlation recognizes the Motagua River as an important boundary between the greater land of Nephi to its south and wilderness to its north.

19. The Kaqchikel claimed to have endured long migrations from their place of origin to Iximche (part 1, page 14). The Book of Mormon tells of three long migrations to reach the promised land 1 Nephi 18:6-23, Omni 1:15, Ether 6:4-12..

20. Punctuation is almost non-existent in the original Kaqchikel manuscript of the Xajil Chronicle. The original manuscript of the Book of Mormon has virtually no punctuation.

21. The Kaqchikel Chronicles have section headings (part 1, page 25). The original Book of Mormon text has colophons - section headings.

22. The texts in the Kaqchikel Chronicles are widely different in their levels of formality. The origin myth, for example, is highly structured and elaborate. Many yearly events are in terse single sentences with almost journalistic simplicity (part 1, page 25). The Book of Mormon has highly structured, elaborate texts such as Alma 36. It also has single sentence annual event summaries that are models of brevity 3 Nephi 5:7.

23. Parallelism is intrinsic in Maya literature. Repetition abounds. Parallelism is evident at the level of morphology (word structure), syntax (sentence structure) and semantics (meaning). The Kaqchikel Chronicles exhibit many forms of literary parallelism (part 1, page 25). The Book of Mormon is so full of various types of parallelism that an entire edition has been published just to highlight its literary structures. See Donald W. Parry, The Book of Mormon Text Reformatted according to Parallelistic Patterns (Provo: FARMS, 1992, 2002).

24. Chiasmus, a particularly sophisticated parallelistic pattern, is found throughout the Kaqchikel Chronicles (part 1, pager 27-29). Chiasmus in the Book of Mormon has been well-known and widely-discussed since Jack Welch first pointed it out over 45 years ago. See John W. Welch, "Chiasmus in the Book of Mormon," BYU Studies 10:1 (1969).

25. The Kaqchikel Chronicles use the term "hills, vales" routinely to describe national territory (part 1, page 30). This phrase is attested in the Book of Mormon in a similar context 3 Nephi 9:8.

26. The Kaqchikel had an intimate relationship with their land, referring to it (our hills, vales) as if it were part of their corporeal being (part 1, page 30). Most Kaqchikel today have not strayed far from their ancestral homelands. The Book of Mormon uses the phrases "our land" and "their land" in a similar way implying a highly personal and possessive relationship almost as if the land were an extension of the people Alma 16:8, Alma 44:5, Alma 54:13, Alma 58:9, Mormon 5:4. Both Kaqchikel Ezekiel 35:8 and Book of Mormon Genesis 47:19 variants of the phrase are attested in the KJV Old Testament.

27. Included in the investiture bundles ancestral Kaqchikel brought from Tulan were weapons of war which were subsequently used in actual warfare (part 1, page 31). Included among the Nephite crown jewels was the sword of Laban which kings used in real battles Jacob 1:10, Words of Mormon 1:13.

28. The Kaqchikel showed filial piety toward ancestors. The phrase "our father, our grandfather" was metaphorical symbolizing honor for the departed (part 1, page 30). In the Book of Mormon respect for forebears is highly regarded. The common phrase "our fathers" expresses this reverence 1 Nephi 19:10, Jarom 1:9, Omni 1:9.

29. The Kaqchikel Chronicles evince a strong correlation between spirituality and battlefield success. This idea pervades the Book of Mormon Alma 57:35-36, Helaman 4:24-26, 3 Nephi 3:2.

30. The phrase "divining power" is used frequently in the Kaqchikel Chronicles. The Book of Mormon equivalent is "spirit of prophecy" found 19 times in the text Jacob 4:6, Alma 5:47.

31. Great warriors in Kaqchikel tradition had "divining power," a gift merited through spiritual purity (part 1, page 32). In good times the Nephites selected supreme military commanders who had the "spirit of revelation and also prophecy." 3 Nephi 3:19.

32. Divining power was a high gift, rare among the Kaqchikel. Seers, rare in the Book of Mormon, had a high gift from God Mosiah 8:13-17.

33. Great warriors in Kaqchikel tradition had "nawal power" aka "transforming power." This meant that in times of extremity they could change into their animal totems and/or acquire animal strength and attributes (part 1, page 32). This idea is attested in the Book of Mormon Mosiah 20:11, Alma 43:44.

34. The Kaqchikel recognized a deity they called Q'ukumatz, "plumed serpent" (part 1, page 33) or "quetzal snake" (part 2, page 52). Flying serpents are described in the Book of Mormon 1 Nephi 17:41, 2 Nephi 25:20. Among the Nephites, wings and a serpent symbolized the Savior, Jesus Christ 2 Nephi 25:13, 2 Nephi 25:20.

35. In the Kaqchikel Chronicles, when the amaq' sleeps, it loses battles and forfeits territory (part 1, page 36). In the Book of Mormon sleep is associated with military defeat or loss of dominion Mosiah 24:19, Alma 55:15-16.

36. When the Kaqchikel Amaq' arises, it wins, increases in stature among its peers, and earns respect (part 1, page 36). The Book of Mormon uses the word "arise" or the phrase "awake and arise" in a similar way referring to a group of people doing something noble or great 1 Nephi 18:5, 2 Nephi 1:14,

37. Death is associated with water among the Kaqchikel. Losers in battle "dissolve in death" (part 1, page 36-37). Death is associated with water in the Book of Mormon 1 Nephi 18:18, Helaman 8:11.Dead warriors are cast into river Sidon so their bodies will be carried out to sea Alma 2:34, Alma 3:3, Alma 44:22. See also point number 70 below.

38. When the Kaqchikel left legendary Tulan, they were one of seven amaq's (part 1, page 38). The notion of seven founding clans is common throughout Mesoamerica. See Diane E. Wirth, "Revisiting the Seven Lineages of the Book of Mormon and the Seven Tribes of Mesoamerica" in BYU Studies 52:4 (2013). The Book of Mormon lists seven founding families Jacob 1:13, 4 Nephi 1:37-38, Mormon 1:8.

39. The post-contact Kaqchikel self-identified as descendants of Israel (part 1, page 47). The Lehites self-identified as descendants of Joseph 1 Nephi 5:14, Alma 10:3, 3 Nephi 10:17. See also point number 77 below.

40. A recurring theme throughout the Kaqchikel Chronicles is that the words comprising it should be preserved for future generations. The last words in the Xpantzay Cartulary are "May these words not be lost!" (part 2, page 691). Ditto the Book of Mormon Enos 1:16, Mormon 5:12-13.

41. Great people in the Kaqchikel Chronicles remember the words of the ancients, they do not forget (part 2, pages 179, 193). Remembering is a noble virtue espoused frequently in the Book of Mormon Alma 37:13, Helaman 5:9, 3 Nephi 18:7.

42. The Kaqchikel worried about forgetting their language (part 1, page 52). Lacking written records, the Mulekites lost their mother tongue Omni 1:17.

43. Precontact Kaqchikel cities were surrounded by fortifying walls (part 1, page 65). Book of Mormon cities had fortification walls Mosiah 7:10, Alma 48:8.

44. The Kaqchikel believed they had originally come from across the ocean (part 2, pages 2, 7). The Book of Mormon records transoceanic migrations 1 Nephi 18:8, Ether 6:4.

45. The Kaqchikel believed they had come across the ocean from the west, landing along the Pacific coast of Mesoamerica (part 2, page 7). In our correlation, the Lehites made landfall on the Pacific coast of Chiapas or Guatemala about 135 air kilometers west of Iximche.

Proposed Lehi Landing

46. East and west, associated with sunrise and sunset, are the cardinal directions mentioned most often in the Kaqchikel Chronicles. We see the same pattern in the Book of Mormon where east is the cardinal direction that appears most frequently in the text, followed by west.

47. Writings were among the sacred objects in the investiture bundles ancestral Kaqchikel brought from Tulan (part 2, page 15). The brass plates of Laban were among the sacred objects guarded by Nephite kings Omni 1:14.

48. The Kaqchiquel perceived themselves as the last of the seven amaq's to leave Tulan. They referred to themselves as the "younger brother." The Kaqchikel Chronicles have numerous references to the younger brother as the brave one, the smart one, the one the other brothers look to for leadership (part 2, pages 37,46). It goes without saying the younger brother/older brothers conflict is one of the defining themes in the Book of Mormon 2 Nephi 5:3, Mosiah 10:12-13.

49. After leaving Tulan, all seven amaq's made their way to the beach, but six of the seven had no idea how to cross the ocean. It fell to the younger brother to get the entire group across the waters (part 2, pages 38-39). Obviously, younger brother Nephi was the prime mover in the Lehite's voyage across the ocean 1 Nephi 18:22.

50. The Kaqchikel remembered two ways the ancients crossed the ocean, in boats (part 2, page 47) and on dry ground miraculously provided by God (part 2, page 39). The Book of Mormon mentions both methods as well.

• Ocean-going vessels 1 Nephi 17:8, Alma 63:5-8, Helaman 3:14, Ether 6:4
• Dry ground 1 Nephi 4:2, 1 Nephi 17:26, 2 Nephi 21:15-16, Helaman 8:11

51. As soon as the Kaqchikel arrived in their land from Tulan, war was rumored (part 2, page 46). Immediately after Lehi died, Nephi was threatened and warned to flee 2 Nephi 5:1-5.

52. Natural disasters the Kaqchikel remembered included avalanches (part 2, page 49), volcanism (part 2, page 83), volcanic ejecta causing darkness (part 2, page 87), thunder and earthquakes (part 2, page 136). The list of destructive forces in 3 Nephi 8 is very similar.

53. The Kaqchikel remembered encountering a people whose speech they could not understand and whose language they had to learn (part 2, pages 64-66). This recalls the Nephite experience when they first encountered the Mulekites Omni 1:17-18.

54. The Kaqchikel recognized a place name called Saqik'wa' aka Saqik'uwa' which has been identified as the confluence of the Salama with the Chixoy-Negro (part 2, page 67). Another place they called Raxch' ich' which has been identified as the archaeological site Los Encuentros, also at the confluence of the Salama with the Chixoy-Negro. This is the precise point we identify as the Book of Mormon's head of Sidon. The Kaqchikel construct k'wa' or k'uwa' means a dug water-well, pozo in Spanish. A well, of course, is a point of origin for water.

Proposed Head of Sidon Called Saqik' wa' in Kaqchikel

55. Tribute payments were an important part of Kaqchikel life. Who paid whom and how much? These issues are addressed in the Chronicles (part 2, page 96). Tribute payments are also mentioned in the Book of Mormon Mosiah 7:22, Mosiah 19:15.

56. When a lord had vassals under tribute and those vassals left, it was a sharp blow to the lord's income, power and prestige. The Kaqchikel Chronicles record such an incident (part 2, page 93) as does the Book of Mormon Mosiah 22:10-16.

57. The Kaqchikel in their writings distinguished between settled and wild lands. Their typical phrase for undomesticated lands was the couplet siwan "ravines" and juyu "hills" (part 2, page 159). The Book of Mormon equivalent is "wilderness" Mosiah 19:28.

58. Royal heirs have been deposing their fathers and usurping the throne to accelerate their inheritances throughout human history. The Kaqchikel Chronicles record an instance (part 2, page 171). The Book of Mormon records several Ether 7:4-7, Ether 8:2-3, Ether 9:7-12.

59. The Kaqchikel Chronicles report that on thirteen Iq' the town of Chi Awar was abandoned and the entire amaq' moved to a new location (part 2, page 183). In the Book of Mormon a similar exodus left the land of Morianton deserted Alma 50:29-35.

60. When they built their new capital, Iximche, the Kaqchikel first enclosed the city within a wall. They then erected a plank palisade atop the wall as an additional fortification (part 2, page 185). Captain Moroni's fortifications ca. 72 BC consisted of a high earthen embankment or wall topped with wooden palisades Alma 50:2-4.

61, At one point in their history, the K'iche' invaded the Kaqchikel, not with an army of 8,000 or 16,000 warriors, but with innumerable people (part 2, page 197). In Kaqchikel affairs, an army of 8,000 or 16,000 was a large force. Numbers greater than that were too many to count. We see a similar size pattern in the Book of Mormon during BC times.

• Ca. 63 BC 2,000 reinforcement troops arrived in Manti Alma 58:8. Helaman₁ complained because he considered this an inadequate number Alma 58:36. He called it a small force Alma 58:12. 
• Ca. 61 BC 6,000 reinforcement troops were considered a solid force, neither small nor large Alma 62:12, Alma 62:13.
• Ca. 66 BC Antipus, with a troop strength of 6,000, was preparing for one last stand.  Helaman₁ came with 2,000 men and then 2,000 reinforcements arrived from Zarahemla. With 10,000 men the Nephites began offensive operations. Alma 56.
• Ca. 63 BC  Helaman₁ commanded a force of somewhat less than 16,000 men. He considered this a strong army Alma 57:6, even referring to the "enormity of our numbers" Alma 57:13.
• Ca. 87 BC over 19,000 dead on the first day of battle was a large loss of life, but still measurable. Alma 2:19.
• Significantly more than that on the second day of battle were too many to count Alma 2:35, Alma 3:1 although the approximate number was in the tens of thousands Alma 3:26.
• Ca. 76 BC tens of thousands of Lamanites were killed or scattered in the largest battle the Nephites had yet fought. The numbers were so large no precise count was taken Alma 28:2.

For more Book of Mormon demographic numbers, see the blog article "Population Sizes and Casualty Counts."

62. Military units described in the Kaqchikel Chronicles include:

• much' = 80 soldiers (part 2, page 259)
• wo'-much' 5 X 80 = 400 soldiers (part 2, page 259)
• ju-chu'y = 8,000 soldiers (part 2, page 221)
• ka-chu'y = 2 X 8,000 = 16,000 soldiers (part 2, page 221)
• ju-ch'ob' = one division (part 2, page 223)
• ma-ki ajil-am = innumerable, not able to be counted (part 2, page 221)

The Book of Mormon also describes hierarchical military units Alma 2:13.

63. The highland Maya fought with cotton body armor the Kaqchikel called k'ub'ul. The Nahuatl name for it was ichcayapul or achcayopilli (part 2, pages 198, 222). In the Book of Mormon it is called thick clothing Alma 43:19.

64. Conch shell trumpets sounded battle calls in Kaqchikel warfare (part 2, page 201). Trumpets sounded on Book of Mormon battlefields as well Ether 14:28.

65. K'iche' warriors who survived their disastrous invasion of Iximche were enslaved by the Kaqchikel (part 2, page 203). Slavery (probably of war captives) is well-attested in the Book of Mormon Mosiah 7:15, Alma 27:8, 3 Nephi 3:7. War captivity slavery is the sense of Mosiah 12:15.

66. The Kaqchikel Chronicles describe a group called Kawoqs who prepared for war by erecting walls and digging trenches (part 2, page 213). The Book of Mormon describes the process of digging a ditch and using the fill material to build a defensive bank or wall Alma 49:18, Alma 53:4.

67. One battle took place at a bridge. The Kaqchikel word for bridge is q'am (part 2, page 221). The Book of Mormon describes four major military actions at three crossing points over river Sidon. One was between the local land of Zarahemla and the land of Gideon Alma 2:34-35. A second was south of Manti where Zoram₂ and his forces liberated Nephite captives Alma 16:6-8. A third was at the same place upstream from Manti where Moroni₁ and Lehi₂ routed the Lamanites under Zerahemnah Alma 43:53. The fourth action was at Manti where Helaman₁ decoyed the Lamanite army out of the city and led them on a wild goose chase Alma 58. The text does not mention a river crossing at this point. We infer a river crossing based on our correlation of Manti with the site of Chama. See the blog article "Manti." We find it quite remarkable that either Mexico or Guatemala has built a modern bridge at each of our proposed river crossing points. See the blog article "Test #10 Crossing Sidon." See the blog article "Minon" for a photo of the Boca del Cerro Bridge we correlate with the site of the Alma₂ Amlici battle described in Alma 2.

68. The Kaqchikel Chronicles use the expression "qi tzij" dozens of times to begin a sentence. It has the meaning true-word, in truth or truly (part 2, pages 68, 72). The Book of Mormon uses the expression "verily" dozens of times to begin a sentence 3 Nephi 20:24, 3 Nephi 23:9. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, verily means in truth.

69. The Kaqchikel Chronicles use the term "ti-()-xib'-in" dozens of times meaning frighten (part 2, page 95). The Book of Mormon uses the similar term "fear" well over a hundred times Alma 22:21, 3 Nephi 4:10.

70. An interesting Kaqchikel phrase is x-e'-ya'-ar k'a chi kam-ik, literally "water die," translated as "enter water," "become water," "dissolve unto death." Stela 31 at Tikal contains the phrase och ha' which has the same meaning. The Maya conceived of their underworld as a watery place (part 2, page 129). The Book of Mormon also has a direct connection between death and water Alma 44:22 and a concept of corpses decomposing in water Alma 3:3.

71. A passage in the Kaqchikel Chronicles describes nim-a' q achi' "great warriors," war captives allowed to remain alive to serve the victorious warlord (part 2, page 168). The Book of Mormon also describes a scenario where only chief captains among war captives were permitted to remain alive Alma 56:12.

72. How far afield did Kaqchikel military forces range? During the mytho-historical period the Chronicles describe a seashore engagement involving boats with forces from Nonowalkat and Xulpiti. Adrian Recinos identified these places on the southern coast of Veracruz, near where we place hill Ramah/Cumorah. This map shows Iximche and Coatzacoalcos 528 air kilometers distant.

Iximche to Southern Veracruz Coast

This is consistent with distances we posit for Nephite and Lamanite military actions described in the text.

73. How large was the Kaqchikel known world? We have plotted many identifiable precontact Kaqchikel geonyms in Google Earth. Places attested in the text ranged from Tenochtitlan on the west to the middle Motagua on the east, and from the Pacific on the south to the Gulf of Mexico on the north. This is very similar to the extent of our proposed Nephite terra cognita.

Black Pins Represent Places Attested in the Kaqchikel Text

As one would expect, the Kaqchikel world centered on their capital, Iximche.

Kaqchikel Geonyms Attested in their Chronicles

74. On the map below, black pins represent known precontact Kaqchikel geonyms. The white layer represents all elevations lower than 1,500 meters. The grey line is our idealized Nephi to Zarahemla route down the Motagua, over the Sierra de las Minas, down the Salama, over the Sierra de Xucaneb, down the Cahabon, past the Sierra de Chama and then down the Chixoy/Salinas/Usumacinta. Our narrow strip of wilderness is in green and Book of Mormon geonyms Nephi, Manti and head of Sidon are noted.

Kaqchikel and Proposed Book of Mormon Worlds

The known Kaqchikel world and our correlation for the highland Book of Mormon world match up well. The Kaqchikel would obviously have been very familiar with our proposed Nephi to Zarahemla trail.

75. When the Spaniards came, the tone of Kaqchikel writing changed. Gone are the vain glories and accolades. There is a sense of impending doom, inevitability and resignation. Their record becomes a pathetic history of the vanquished. In the books of Mormon and Moroni we see a similar pathos stemming from impending holocaust Mormon 4:18. The Book of Mormon is the ultimate history of the vanquished Mormon 8:3.

All Kaqchikel data to this point in the article are from precontact portions of the Xajil Chronicle.

76. Other documents in the Kaqchikel Chronicles document lengthy genealogies (part 2, pages 489, 495, 616 & 649). The Book of Mormon documents lengthy genealogies Ether 1.

77. The Xpantzay Cartulary has a version of Kaqchikel origins redacted post-contact. The authors claim to be descendants of a) the house of Israel, b) the people dispersed after the confusion of tongues at the tower of Babel, and c) emigrants who came to the Americas from across the ocean in seven ships representing seven founding lineages (part 2, pages 592-596). All of these ideas are expressed and fit comfortably in the Book of Mormon.

78. The Xpantzay Cartulary and the Xahil Chronicle both mention a precontact location associated with beards. The Kaqchikel phrase for beard is ism-a-chi' meaning "body hair mouth" (part 2, pages 158, 597). Beards were biologically and culturally endemic to Book of Mormon peoples 2 Nephi 17:20. Native American populations generally have scant if any facial hair, so the many ancient artistic portrayals of Mesoamerican individuals with full beards and moustaches are highly incongruous. In 1979 I wrote the short study "A Survey of Mesoamerican Bearded Figures" cited in John L. Sorenson, Mormon's Codex: An Ancient American Book (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book & Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, 2013) p. 242. Since that time, V. Garth Norman, Diane E. Wirth and David Lee have all done studies of Mesoamerican bearded figures.

79. The Xpantzay Cartulary references tun ab'aj which means stela, literally "400 day count stone" (part 2, page 598). The Book of Mormon records an instance of historical information being engraved on a stela Omni 1:20-22.

80. The Xpantzay Cartulary associates r-aqan "leg/foot" with a unit of length or distance (part 2, page 605). In the Book of Mormon, the standard Nephite unit of distance measure is a day's journey. See the blog articles "Land Southward Travel Times" and "Test #6 Relative Distances."

81. Kaqchikel society, like Mesoamerican cultures generally, was aristocratic. Favored lineages were entitled to special prerogatives and the right to rule (part 1, page 5). Mormon took a dim view of ambitious aristocrats whom he called "those of high birth" Alma 51:8 "distinguished by ranks" 3 Nephi 6:12 who "professed the blood of nobility" Alma 51:21.

82. Elites within a Kaqchikel chinamit were called ajaw "lords." The leader of a chinamit was also called an ajaw. The leader of multiple chinamits confederated into an amaq' was called an ajpop aka ajpo (part 1, pages 5. 7). Since there were multiple Kaqchikel amaq's there were multiple ajpops. Book of Mormon equivalents were lower judges Alma 46:4 and chief judges over lands Alma 14:4, Alma 62:47.

83. In Kaqchikel affairs, multiple amaq's allied to form the winaq' or nation. After 1493, two amaq's constituted the winaq'. The ajpops of the two amaq's governed the winaq' as co-regents (part 1, pages 5, 7). The Book of Mormon records two cases where the chief judge and chief captain governed the Nephite nation in a form of co-regency Alma 62:11, 3 Nephi 6:6.

84. High-ranking Kaqchikel leaders were surrounded by personal cadres of elite warriors (part 1, page 5). Helaman₁ with his 2,000 "sons" Alma 56:10 and Teancum's select force guarding Bountiful Alma 51:31 come to mind.

85. Ajpop succession among the Kaqchikel was generally from father to son (part 1, page 8). We see this same patrilineal pattern among Nephite chief judges Alma 50:39, Helaman 1:2, 3 Nephi 6:19.

86. The Kaqchiquel term "ajpop" literally means "he of the mat" (part 1, page 5). The Nephite term was "judgment-seat" Alma 4:17, Helaman 8:27.

87. The Kaqchikel Chronicles use the injunctive wa'e' "here" in a visual context because the original documents were pictorial in nature (part 1, page 14). The equivalent Book of Mormon phrase is "behold, here" Jacob 5:16, Mosiah 20:13, Alma 44:8.

88. Modern Kaqchikel associate the color red with Satan (part 1, page 44). In the Book of Mormon, the color red is associated with a curse Alma 3:13-18.

89. Modern Kaqchikel refer to Satan as ri itz' "the evil one" (part 1, page 44). The Book of Mormon uses the same term 2 Nephi 9:28, Alma 46:8, Helaman 12:4.

90. The Kaqchikel Chronicles describe a god who is at once creator and perfecter (part 2, page 11). God in the Book of Mormon is both creator 1 Nephi 17:36, Mosiah 3:8, 3 Nephi 9:15 and perfecter Alma 11:43-44, 3 Nephi 12:48, Moroni 10:32.

91. Some among the Kaqchikel practiced bigamy (part 2, page 12). Jacob chastised the Nephites for taking multiple wives and paramours Jacob 2:23-28.

92. The Kaqchikel associated a throne with power and dominion (part 2, page 20). In the Book of Mormon, rulers, both human and divine, sit on thrones 1 Nephi 1:8, Mosiah 11:9, Alma 60:21.

93. In its mytho-heroic origin narrative, the Xajil Chronicle recounts this conversation as the seven founding families of highland Guatemala were at the seashore wondering how to cross the ocean to their promised land: "We are two of the children, we are the top, we are the head, we are the first warriors, the seven amaq's. And you are my younger brother." The younger brother urges his elders to cross the ocean and seize their destinies rather than collapse and sleep (suffer defeat) at the water's edge (part 1, pages 36, 37). Correspondences with the Book of Mormon origin narrative are striking.

• Laman and Lemuel were two of the children, the eldest 1 Nephi 2:12.
• Lamanites and Lemuelites were two of the seven founding Lehite lineages Jacob 1:13.
• Laman and Lemuel believed their seniority entitled them to the right to rule. They rejected their younger brother's leadership 1 Nephi 16:37-38, 1 Nephi 18:10, 2 Nephi 5:3, Mosiah 10:15.
• Laman and Lemuel mocked their younger brother's plan to build a ship and cross the ocean Nephi 17:17.
• Laman and Lemuel wanted to return to Jerusalem rather than journey to the promised land 1 Nephi 7:7, 1 Nephi 16:36,
• Nephi admonished his elder brothers to be diligent and obtain the land of promise 1 Nephi 7:13.  

The Kaqchikel perceived themselves the younger brother in their version of this story.

94. Nonowalkat was a Nahuatl geonym located on the southern Veracruz coast. After a seaside battle victory, the Kaqchikel traveled eastward in Nonowalkat boats (part 2, page 48). Their peregrinations took them along the Tabascan coast, precisely the route we posit for the seafaring Mulekites (see point #18 in the blog article "Test #9 River Sidon").

95. In their wanderings before they settled their capital, Iximche, the Kaqchikel passed many hills. One was called Muqulik Ya' which means "cover, bury, or submerge with water" (part 2, page 57). 3 Nephi 9:7 lists three inland cities that were covered with water ca. AD 34.

96. Among the Kaqchikel, binding up or tying up was a metaphor for recording something in writing. This metaphor also appears in Mayan glyphic texts (part 2, page 63). The Book of Mormon uses the phrase "bind up" with precisely the same meaning 2 Nephi 18:16 citing Isaiah 8:16.

97. The Kaqchikel used the Nahuatl loan word amatal meaning "paper" (part 2, page 64). The Nephites clearly possessed some form of paper Alma 14:8.

98. At one point in their heroic past, the Kaqchikel discovered a group whose language they could not understand. The newly-encountered people recognized the authority of the recent arrivals, appreciated their coming, and asked them to stay (part 2, page 66). The people of Zarahemla, whose language was unintelligible Omni 1:17, recognized Mosiah₁'s authority and superior culture Omni 1:19, and welcomed the Nephites who settled in their midst.

99. Among the Kaqchikel, the word k'ajol meant "vassal" or "son of man" as opposed to ajaw "lord" (part 2, page 67). The Book of Mormon uses the phrase "son of man" in precisely the same way, meaning a mere mortal 2 Nephi 8:12 citing Isaiah 51:12.

100. Honey was a valued commodity among the Kaqchikel and bee-keeping is attested in their writings (part 2, page 77). Ditto in the Book of Mormon 1 Nephi 17:5, 1 Nephi 18:6, Ether 2:3.

101. The Xajil Chronicle mentions dogs, turkeys and other domesticated animals (part 2, page 49). The Book of Mormon mentions dogs Mosiah 12:2, Alma 16:10 as well as flocks and herds 2 Nephi 5:11, Mosiah 7:22 of domesticated animals.

102. The Kaqchikel remembered an event when fluid earth surrounded houses. Trembling and dust accompanied an avalanche. Houses, dogs, turkeys and other animals fought (part 2, page 49). Earthquakes are known to cause unusual animal behavior. See the blog article "Geology of the Book of Mormon." This colorful Kaqchikel language describes an earthquake and resulting landslide. The Book of Mormon describes similar phenomena 1 Nephi 12:4, 3 Nephi 9:8.

103. The earthquake mentioned above must have caused widespread ruin because the Kaqchikel enumerate six ethnic groups and describe how they were saved from complete destruction. Warriors from each of the suffering groups gathered one by one at hill Tapku Oloman. This was a special hill because it had previously hosted a major council. Tapku means "at the enclosure" and Oloman means "wooded place." The topic on everyone's lips was "Where did you save yourself?" (part 2, pages 43, 50-53). This recalls the Nephite survivors who gathered at the temple in land Bountiful marveling and wondering one with another 3 Nephi 11:1.

104. Several totemic deities were associated with the post-earthquake salvation (part 2, pages 51-53).

• The K'iche' deity of the sky was Tojojil "thunder." Angels representing God speak with the voice of thunder in the Book of Mormon 1 Nephi 17:45, Mosiah 27:11, Alma 36:7.
• The Sotz'il deity was Kaqix Kan "macaw remain" or "macaw snake." See point #34 above for the significance of bird serpents in the Book of Mormon.
• The Kaqchikel deity was Chi Taq'aj "of the earth, valleys, or plains." (Additional etymological commentary in part 1, pages 28-30). In the Book of Mormon Jesus Christ explicitly dominates the earth, valleys, and level places Helaman 12:8-17. Helaman 14:12.
• Another deity, Q'ukumatz, "plumed serpent" or "quetzal snake" was associated with water. The Book of Mormon also associates deity with water 1 Nephi 11:25, Moses was remembered for showing the power of God through both a serpent and water 2 Nephi 25:20.
• The Tuquche' deity was Ajsik Amaq' "above the polity." God in the Book of Mormon reigns "in the heavens above and in the earth beneath" 2 Nephi 29:7, Mosiah 3:8.
• The Aqajal deity was Aqalajay "wasp/nest house." The Book of Mormon explicitly associates God with nesting creatures 2 Nephi 20:14 citing Isaiah 10:14.

These various highland Guatemalan deities ruled over parts of the natural cosmos - sky, earth, water. The Book of Mormon attests this same heaven, earth, water cosmology Mosiah 13:12. The Book of Mormon calls Jesus Christ "The God of nature" 1 Nephi 19:12. The top of a hill was a place of interface between the heavens above and the earth beneath Alma 1:15.

105. The Kaqchikel were saved by burrowing into the earth (part 2, page 52). The Book of Mormon records two instances where salvation and deliverance are associated with holes in the ground Alma 24:16-17, 3 Nephi 28:20.

106. The Kaqchikel conceived of a watery underworld (part 2, page 129). The Book of Mormon describes water under the earth Mosiah 13:12.

107. The Kaqchikel distinguished between flesh and spirit (part 2, page 55). The flesh/spirit dichotomy is an important theme in the Book of Mormon 1 Nephi 22:1-2, 2 Nephi 2:8, 2 Nephi 9:13.

108.The Kaqchikel remembered a time before they were settled agriculturists when food was only available on hill Pam Paxil (part 2, page 10). The Book of Mormon records two instances where people had to climb to high elevations to obtain food 1 Nephi 16:30-31, 3 Nephi 4:1-3.

109. Offensive and defensive armaments used by Kaqchikel warriors included arrows, shields, and spears, (part 2, pages 16, 29, 101. Arrows, shields, and spears are all attested in the Book of Mormon Alma 49:24, Helaman 1:14, Alma 17:7.

110. The Kaqchikel word for "breastplate" was xajpota (part 2, page 62). The Book of Mormon mentions breastplates several times Mosiah 8:10, Alma 43:19, Helaman 1:14.

111 The Kaqchikel talked about trapping birds by laying snares in trees (part 2, page 79). The Jaredites trapped birds in snares Ether 2:2.

112 The Kaqchikel Chronicles record an instance of K'iche' becoming lost (part 2, page 79). The Book of Mormon describes several groups getting lost Mosiah 7:4, Mosiah 8:8, Mosiah 22:16.

113. The Kaqchikel sacrificed war captives (part 2, page 97). Lamanites in the Book of Mormon sacrificed war captives Mormon 4:14, Mormon 4:21.

114, Accouterments of power among the Kaqchilel included a bench and chair (part 2, page 98). In the Book of Mormon, both human and divine rulers have judgment-seats 1 Nephi 10:21, 2 Nephi 33:7, Alma 1:2, Alma 4:17. Nobles in the royal court sat in special seats Mosiah 11:11.

115. The concept of standard units of area and length measure existed among the Kaqchikel (part 2, pages 107, 115). The Nephites used standard units of measure Alma 11:4.

116. The Xajil Chronicle records an incident where a rival group, the Nik'aj Ko'on, took a Kaqchikel woman. The Kaqchikel threatened war and went looking for her, but relented when the woman was presented to them and told them she had grown accustomed to her new home and wished to remain (part 2, pages 108-110). The Amulonites abducted 24 Lamanite women Mosiah 20:5. The Lamanites retaliated militarily Mosiah 20:7. A search ensued Mosiah 21:20. The Amulonites presented their wives to the Lamanite army and the women, content to remain, plead for their husbands' lives Mosiah 23:33-34.

117. The Xahil Chronicle is clearly abridgment literature, synthesized from a more complete and probably pictorial original document (part 2, page 111). Nephi₁ 1 Nephi 1:17, Mormon Words of Mormon 1:9, and Moroni₂ Moroni 1:1 all abridged earlier and more extensive original documents. John L. Sorenson's 2011 presentation entitled "Mormon's Sources" studies the Nephite abridgment process.

This numbering system continues with additional correspondences in the blog article entitled "Rabinal Achi."

Kaqchikel belongs to the Quichean sub-branch of the Eastern branch of the Mayan language family. Other dialects of Quichean include K'iche', Q'eqchi', and Achi. This map shows the various dialects of Mayan. Colors indicate branches and sub-branches. Font sizes indicate number of contemporary native speakers. Locations approximate geographic distributions. This map does not show important non-Mayan languages in the region such as Nahuatl and Zoque.

Mayan Languages Spoken Today in Southern Mesoamerica

The Kaqchikel Chronicles are part of a remarkable corpus of highland Guatemalan precontact documents written in Quichean languages using Latin script. These include:

• Popol Vuh aka Popol Wuj probably originated as a precontact glyphic codex no longer extant. It was transliterated phonetically into Latin characters probably between 1554 and 1558. This transliteration is no longer extant. Dominican Friar Francisco Ximenez redacted it in parallel K'iche' and Spanish columns in 1701 while residing in Chichicastenango, El Quiche, Guatemala. It was first published in 1857 in Spanish. The Ximenez 1701 manuscript is now in the Newberry Library in Chicago. One of the foremost Popol Vuh scholars in the world today is Allen J. Christenson of the BYU Humanities faculty.
• Title of Totonicapan aka Title of the Lords of Totonicapan, originally in K'iche', was transliterated phonetically into Latin characters ca. 1554, probably from a precontact glyphic codex no longer extant or possibly from oral recitation. It was translated into Spanish by Father Dionisio Jose Chonay in 1834, then first published in 1885 in both French & Spanish. Father Chonay didn't bother to translate the first seven of thirty-one folio pages in the K'iche' manuscript because they so closely resembled Biblical accounts in the book of Genesis. In 1973, Robert M. Carmack, now SUNY Albany emeritus, was given access to the original K'iche' manuscript in Totonicapan where it resides today under the guardianship of the Yax lineage.  
• Rabinal Achi aka Dance of the Trumpets, originally in K'iche', is the only surviving drama from the precontact Mayan theatrical repertoire. An early manuscript, no longer extant, was transliterated phonetically into Latin characters at an unknown date. That manuscript was copied by Bartolo Sis of Rabinal in 1850. In 1856, Sis read it aloud while Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg made his own copy. Bourbourg took his copy to France and the work was first published in 1862 in both K'iche' & French. The play is still being performed in Rabinal today.
• Kaqchikel Chronicles contain nine different documents originally in Kaqchikel, the most important of which is the Xajil Chronicle aka Annals of the Cakchiquels aka Memorial de Tecpan-Atitlan aka Memorial de Solola. It was transliterated phonetically into Latin characters in 1571 from an indigenous glyphic codex or historical map (lienzo). Subsequent scribes continued the annals through 1604. The document was copied in a single hand sometime during the seventeenth century. Discovered in Guatemala City in 1844. Brasseur de Bourbourg translated it into French in 1855 and Daniel G. Brinton first published it in 1885 in English. The manuscript of forty-eight folio pages now resides in the University of Pennsylvania library.

These documents share many personal names, place names, stories and motifs. They become increasingly accurate as they come forward in time recording first heroic mythic, then mytho-historical, and finally later historical epochs. Even the very early material, though, merits some credibility. Denigrated for years due to European Christian contamination, these documents are increasingly respected by Mesoamericanist scholars because mythic elements from them are found in art from Izapa (stone sculpture ca. 300 BC), El Mirador (plaster frieze ca. 200 BC), San Bartolo (mural ca. 100 BC), and the Nakbe area (early classic "blowgunner pot" Justin Kerr photograph K1226) among many others.

New World portions of the Book of Mormon took place in Mesoamerica (southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, western Honduras, western El Salvador) as John L. Sorenson's 2013 masterwork Mormon's Codex: An Ancient American Book makes abundantly clear. Six serious students of the Nephite text have published correlations attempting to locate Book of Mormon geonyms on the modern Mesoamerican map. (Any would-be Book of Mormon geographer proposing major realignments of the Mesoamerican coastline during the Holocene is not considered serious.) The six are, in order of first publication:

• John L. Sorenson 1985, 2013. Lawrence L. Poulsen extends Sorenson.
• F. Richard Hauck 1988. Joe V. Andersen extends Hauck.
• Joseph L. Allen, 1989, 2008. Blake J. Allen collaborates with his father.
• Aric Turner 2004
• V. Garth Norman 2006
• Kirk A. Magleby 2011 (this blog)

All six place the city of Nephi within 90 kilometers of each other either a) at Kaminaljuyu in the Valley of Guatemala, b) in the Salama Valley (Baja Verapaz), or c) along the Polochic River (Alta Verapaz). All three of these proposed locations for Nephi are squarely within Quichean territory.

This means the Book of Mormon peoples and the Kaqchikel almost certainly shared a common geography. Separated in time by about 1,000 years, they shared many similar cultural and literary traits. They were on either end of the great classic Mesoamerican cultural tradition. Are 117 correspondences between the texts, ranging from vague and general to arbitrary and precise, adequate to establish a connection implying textual or oral tradition dependency? Not necessarily. There are four cultural traditions at work and we need to understand the relationships between them.

1. The Biblical world.
2. The Book of Mormon world.
3. The Mesoamerican world.
4. The Quichean world.

The Book of Mormon explicitly describes its relationships with the Biblical world. Science has established generally accepted relationships of Quichean peoples within the greater Mesoamerican world. Faithful scholars are increasingly able to show relationships between the Book of Mormon and the greater Mesoamerican world. Scholars generally don't deal with overt Biblical content in the Quichean literature, simply dismissing it as post-contact cultural contamination. The same thing happens with writings from Yucatan and central Mexico.

If we can identify compelling correspondences between the Book of Mormon and other Quichean documents - Popol Vuh, Title of Totonicapan, Rabinal Achi - that will strengthen the case for cultural transmission. If we can show the Quichean documents relate to the Bible the same ways the Book of Mormon relates to the Bible that will help elaborate a testable theory of cultural transmission that could benefit Mesoamerican studies in general. And that would help modern native Americans understand what great things the Lord has done for their fathers Title Page which is pretty much the point of both the Book of Mormon and the Kaqchikel Chronicles.

This list of correspondences continues in the blog articles entitled "Rabinal Achi" and Titulo de Totonicapan."